Microprocessor Fundamentals

Microprocessors
Microcontroller
Fundamentals
Presented By-
Diwaker Pant
Assistant Professor
ECE Department
7/16/2015 1By, Diwaker Pant

 Introduction
 Evolution of Microprocessor
 Block diagram & Architecture of Microprocessor
 Microcontroller Fundamentals
 Applications of Microprocessor and Microcontroller
 Manufacturers of Microprocessor and Microcontrollers
 Questions in Competitive examinations
 Conclusion
 References

 Microprocessor :
o It is a clock driven
o Register based digital device
o Which takes binary instructions from the memory
o Takes the data from memory or input devices
o Process the data according to the instructions
o Save the result into memory or give it to some output devices.
 It is a silicon chip which is used for performing arithmetic and logical
operations.

In the late 1960’s, processors were built using discrete elements like
vacuum tubes
These devices performed the required operation, but were too large and too
slow
In the early 1970’s the microchip was invented
All of the components that made up the processor were now placed on a
single piece of silicon IC
The size became several thousand times smaller and the speed became
several hundred times faster
The Micro-Processor was “born”

 Fairchild Semiconductors (founded in 1957) invented the first IC in 1959.
 In 1968, Robert Noyce, Gordan Moore, Andrew Grove resigned from
Fairchild Semiconductors.
 They founded their own company Intel (Integrated Electronics).
 Intel grown from 3 man start-up in 1968 to industrial giant by 1981.
 The first microprocessor was 4 bit microprocessor manufactured by Intel.
 It was Intel’s 4004, capable of performing simple operations.
 At the same time some other organizations like Motorola , Hitachi and
National semiconductors introduces their microprocessors.

Fig.1. Evolution of Microprocessors
/ 8085/ 8086

 Advanced Microprocessor like
o Dual Core
o Core 2 Duo (8500, E6850)
o Core 2 Quad
o Core 2 Extreme (X6800)
o Quad Core Processors
o I Series processors
o Octa Core Processors
o Microcontrollers / PIC / DSP Processors
o Embedded versions of Xeon and Multicore Xeon Processors
o Embedded Versions of Pentium Processors Family.
o Intel’s i960 processor family

Fig.2. Block diagram of Microprocessor

 CPU: A central processing unit (CPU), is the hardware within a computer system
which carries out the instructions of a computer program
 ALU: In computing, an arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit that
performs arithmetic and logical operations , also ALU is a fundamental building
block of the central processing unit of a computer, and even the simplest
microprocessors
 Memory: In computing, memory refers to the physical devices used to store
programs (sequences of instructions) or data (e.g. program state information) on a
temporary or permanent basis for use in a computer or other digital electronic
device
 When we hear the word “Microprocessor”, what comes in our mind is small
IC (Integrated Circuit) that processes data.
Fig.3. Integrated Circuit

INPUT
OPERANDS
OUTPUT
OPERANDS
OPCODE
Fig.4. ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Definitions
 Opcode: A binary code, that indicates the operation to be performed
 Operands: The data on which the operation is to be performed are termed as
operands
 Instruction: The combination of opcode and an operand, that can be used to
instruct a system, is called as an instruction
 Instruction Set: A list of all the instruction that can be issued to a system, is
called as instruction set of that system
 Program/Subroutine/Routine: A set of instruction written in a particular
sequence, so as to implement a given task, a subroutine in assembly

Accumulator ALU Working Registers
Timing and
clock
Stack
Pointer
Program
Counter
Interrupt
Circuit
Fig.5. General Architecture of Microprocessor

 Accumulator: In a computer's central processing unit (CPU), an
accumulator is a register in which intermediate arithmetic and logic
results are stored
 ALU: In computing, an arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) is a digital
circuit that performs integer arithmetic and logical operation
 Working Registers: In computer architecture, a register is a small amount
of storage available as part of a CPU or other digital processor
 Clock signal: In electronics and especially synchronous digital circuits, a
clock signal is a particular type of signal that oscillates between a high and
a low state, microprocessor speed depends on the clock
 Interrupt Circuit: This block accepts different interrupt request
inputs

 Stack Pointer: In a microprocessor, the stack can be used for both user
data (such as local variables and passed parameters) and CPU data (such as
return addresses when calling subroutines)
 The stack pointer stores the address of the most recent entry that was
pushed onto the stack
 To push a value onto the stack, the stack pointer is incremented to point to
the next physical memory address, and the new value is copied to that
address in memory
 When a valid interrupt request is present it informs control logic to take
action in response to each signal

 Address Bus :
 The bus over which the CPU sends out the address of memory location is
called as Address Bus
 The address may be consist of 16, 20, 24 or 32 parallel signal lines
 If there are N address lines, then it can directly address 2N memory
locations
 Data Bus :
 The data bus consists of 8, 16 or 32 parallel lines
 The data bus is a bi-directional bus , that means the data can get
transferred from CPU to memory and vice-versa
 The data bus also connects the I/O ports and CPU
 The number of data lines used in the data bus is equal to the size of data
word that can be written or read

 Control Bus :
 It is used for sending control signals to memory and I/O devices
 Some of the control bus signals are as follows:
a. Memory read
b. Memory write
c. I/O read
d. I/O write

Fig.6. Interfacing Buses & Computer System

Fig.7. Types of Memories

 Primary Memory :
 Primary memory is computer memory that is directly
accessible to the CPU of a computer without the use of
computer's input/output channels
 Primary storage is used to store data that is likely to be in
active use
 Examples are RAM, ROM.

 Read-only memory (ROM) is a
class of storage media used in
computers
 Data stored in ROM cannot be
modified
 ROM is a non-volatile storage.
Data remains unchanged even
after switching off the computer.
(Wikipedia, 2007n)
E.g. EPROM, EEPROM
Fig.8. An EPROM
7/16/2015 20

 Random access memory (RAM)
is a type of data storage used in
computers
 It takes the form of integrated
circuits that allow the stored data
to be accessed in any order
(random)
 Data stored in RAM can be
modified
 RAM is a volatile storage. Data
will lose after switching off the
computer Fig.9. Two 512 MB RAM
7/16/2015 21

 Secondary memory is computer memory that is not directly accessible to
the CPU of a computer
 It is used to store data that is NOT in active use
 It is usually slower than primary storage but it always has higher storage
capacity
 It is non-volatile. Data remains unchanged even after switching off the
computer

Fig.10. Secondary Memory

Fig.11. Microcontroller Chip

Fig.12. Microcontroller block diagram

 PIC(Peripheral Interface Controller ) is family of low cost , high
performance CMOS , fully-static microcontroller
 They use Harvard Architecture which are high performance RISC
processors
Fig.13. Harvard Vs Von-Neumann architectures

Fig.14. Types of Microcontroller

Working
Register (W)
ALU
Status (Flag)
Register
Flash
ROM
Program
Memory
8192*14
bits
Program counter
Stack 13
bits*8
Levels
RAM File
Registers 368
* 8 Bits
Instruction Register
EEPROM 256 BytesInstruction Decode & CPU
Control
Ports , Timers,
ADC, Serial I/O
Timing Control
File Select Register
CLK Reset
Addr
Instructions File Addr
Prog Addr
Data
Bus
Fig. 15. PIC16F877 MCU Block Diagram

They are used in industrial control applications , calculators, commercial
appliances
It is used in CPU of a computer for controlling I/P , O/P and other devices
of a computer
They are used for database management, storing information
They are used as controller for appliances and in automobiles
They are used in computers for railway, air-ticket reservations etc..
They are used to measure and control the temperature of a furnace, the
pressure of boiler etc…

 Automotive air bag systems, Remote control, Handheld tools
 Appliances – coffee pot, mixer, stove, refrigerator, dish washer, dryer
 Major home systems heating/cooling, TV, DVD player/recorder, Sound
system
 Cordless phones and cell phones Security systems

 Fairchild Semiconductors
 Freescale Semiconductors
 National Semiconductors, Hewlett-Packard
 Hitachi Corporations
 Intel
 Motorola Corporations
 LG, Samsung, IBM, Intersil, MIPS Technologies
 MOS technology, OpenCore, Renesas Electronics
 Texas Instuments, Zilog, Inmos Etc.

 Microprocessor and Microcontrollers are brain of all modern electronic
system.
 Microprocessors are generally used for general purpose systems while
microcontrollers are used for applications specific systems.
 If anything is automatic it must have a part of microprocessor in it.
 Modern embedded systems have microcontroller in it.

 Microprocessor Architecture, Programming, and Applications with the
8085 by R. Gaonkar.
 Microprocessors: Principles and Applications by A. Pal.
 The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems : Using Assembly and C
by Muhammad Ali Mazidi.
 Advanced Microprocessors and Peripherals by A.K.Ray and
K.M.Bhurchandi.
 Microprocessors and Microcontrollers images: Contents available at
akihil.jain.worlspress.com

Microprocessor Fundamentals

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