Self-Talk

Psychological factors affecting golfing performance have been widely researched within the sport psychology literature. Although there is a general consensus on these, the sport offers a unique environment whereby at the highest-level golfers compete with a caddie. Despite the proximity and potential influence on the golfer, the role and perspective of the caddie has been overlooked. This study therefore sought to ascertain caddies’ perceptions of their role in facilitating a golfer’s psychological performance. One semi-structured interview was conducted with seven male active caddies (M age = 35.57, SD = 9.78), working across six professional tours. Caddies reported a mean experience of 9.25 years (SD = 8.39) and 1.7 years with their current player (SD = 1.09). Transcripts were analyzed using thematic analysis. Three themes were identified: a) it’s more than carrying a bag, b) caddying, it’s a people thing, and c) confidence is a two-way street. The study provides an insight to the...

Psychological factors affecting golfing performance have been widely researched within the sport psychology literature. Although there is a general consensus on these, the sport offers a unique environment whereby at the highest-level golfers compete with a caddie. Despite the proximity and potential influence on the golfer, the role and perspective of the caddie has been overlooked. This study therefore sought to ascertain caddies' perceptions of their role in facilitating a golfer's psychological performance. One semi-structured interview was conducted with seven male active caddies (M age = 35.57, SD = 9.78), working across six professional tours. Caddies reported a mean experience of 9.25 years (SD = 8.39) and 1.7 years with their current player (SD = 1.09). Transcripts were analyzed using thematic analysis. Three themes were identified: a) it's more than carrying a bag, b) caddying, it's a people thing, and c) confidence is a two-way street. The study provides an insight to the role of the caddie, the specific processes employed, and the factors which influence their ability to facilitate a golfer's psychological performance. It is intended that findings and implications for practice will enhance understanding for professionals and sport psychologists working within golf. In addition, educational tools are warranted to develop the knowledge and subsequent evidence-based practice of aspiring and currently active caddies.

Background: studies in adults have shown that external focus of attention is better than internal focus in motor learning. So, the aim of this study is to evaluate the effects of focus of attention- self talk on balance of women with multiple sclerosis. Materials and Methods: In this semi- experimental study, statistical population included women with MS referred to MS Society of Arak. Whereas balance disorder in patients was diagnosed by neurologyist, they were invited to the study. Patients were accidentally divided into 3 groups each of 15 concluding control, self tak-external focus of attention and self talk- internal focus of attention groups and were evaluated by Berg balance scale. 42 samples completed executive steps of study. ANOVA and Tukey tests were used to compare balance score between groups with significant level of less than 0.05. All patients practiced balance tasks for 9 days and then they were undergone post test. Results: Balance was improved in all groups. Altho...

Background: Self-talk is a psychological intervention that can affect the performance of an individulal, so the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of balance-training with educational and motivational self-talk on balance in women with MS in the city of Arak. Materials and Methods: This study was a semi-experimental research with pre-test and post-test. The statistical population included women with MS in the city of Arak. 42 patients with the age range of 20-50 years old were chosen as samples and randomly were divided in 3 groups of individuls as control, educational self-talk and motivation self-talk and were experimented by Berg balance test.The experimental groups practiced the balance excercises for a month , 3 times a week and 45 minutes in each session. Then, post-test was performed for them. For data collecting, the demographic questionnaire, Berg balance test, one leg balance test and star test were used. Data analysis was done by using ANOVA and Tokey post-te...

Self-talk conducted by athletes has become an important focus in sport psychology, especially in the context of performance enhancement, emotion regulation, and motivation. This study aims to analyze the development of research on self-talk in sport over the past 30 years. This study explores research related to self talk from 1996-2025. Using information from the Scopus database, this study attempts to map research self-talk using bibliometric analysis. To investigate publishing trends, author partnerships, prominent keywords, and developing research subjects, analysis was done using VOSviewer and R software (Bibliometrix). The results of this study show that there has been significant growth in publications related to self-talk since 2011, with peak productivity in 2018 and 2022. Researchers such as Hatzigeorgiadis A and Latinjak AT stand out as major contributors. The University of Thessaly and Greece were the most productive institutions and countries. Thematic analysis revealed a shift in research focus from general topics such as physiology and verbal behavior to more specific topics such as anxiety, emotion regulation, and athletic performance. These findings indicated the importance of self-talk in improving athlete performance. Further research involving more diverse populations, such as female athletes and younger age groups, as well as team sport contexts, is needed. Overall, this study offers an in-depth overview of developments in the topic of self-talk in sports and its implications for sports psychology practice.

This is a plea for viewing the phenomenon of self-talk in a broader perspective of the relation between the speaker's thought and its externalisation through speech. I-centered vs. youcentered self-talk are argued to provide end points of a spectrum rather than constitute a binary categorial distinction. It is argued that Wiltschko's 'structure on top' can be reconceptualised to accommodate this gradation when it is viewed as conceptual structure that is sufficiently flexible. The argument is strengthened by associating properties of selftalk with properties of indexical thought, especially broadly understood de se thought, pointing out bidirectional explanatory benefits for theory of meaning on the one hand, and philosophy of mind, notably theories of self-ascription of beliefs, on the other.

Although there have been numerous studies investigating the role of selftalk in the literature, no research, to date, investigated diaries of an EFL learner who used these techniques to clarify how self-talk can aid EFL learners to improve their speaking competence without language partners in a real context. The present study was a qualitative diary case study. The researchers attempted to use participant's diaries and transcriptions of his self-talk tasks to figure out how self-talk aided Mahan (participant's first name) to improve his speaking competence eight months. The participant was an Iranian male EFL learner at the age of 22. His mother tongue was Azeri and he was an advanced level EFL learner. The participant took English classes for seven years. But his speaking practice was only limited to classroom context. Mahan failed his advanced level term due to his poor speaking competence. The participant was trained to use self-talk in his EFL classes and outside his EFL contexts to ameliorate his speaking competence and he consented to do so for eight months. Going through the diary entries, the researchers came up with two emerging themes namely: Mahan's two I positions based on Dialogical Self Theory were in agreement with each other and Mahan's both I positions were in disagreement with each other. As a result, his speaking competence significantly improved during this period of time. The findings offer implications for L2 researchers and teachers.

Hypnosis as a tool has a long history, but there is still no consensus among authors and experts on how to conceptualize it, nor on how to teach it. This paper discusses a model of therapeutic hypnosis training based on metaskills-sets of skills structured around an organizing principle. This model proposes six key principles that organize the hypnosis practice and allow for focused training and practice of skills that expand the practitioner's technical and personal arsenal.

Background: Self-talk is a psychological intervention that can affect the performance of an individulal, so the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of balance-training with educational and motivational self-talk on balance in women with MS in the city of Arak. Materials and Methods: This study was a semi-experimental research with pre-test and post-test. The statistical population included women with MS in the city of Arak. 42 patients with the age range of 20-50 years old were chosen as samples and randomly were divided in 3 groups of individuls as control, educational self-talk and motivation self-talk and were experimented by Berg balance test.The experimental groups practiced the balance excercises for a month , 3 times a week and 45 minutes in each session. Then, post-test was performed for them. For data collecting, the demographic questionnaire, Berg balance test, one leg balance test and star test were used. Data analysis was done by using ANOVA and Tokey post-te...

Self-talk is a well-researched component of self-efficacy that is frequently used as a motivational tool in sports. This study investigated how self-talk, as a component of entrepreneurship self-efficacy, relates to entrepreneurial motivation orientation. An online survey measured the self-talk valence of twenty-four entrepreneurs. Subsequently, interviews were conducted with the same entrepreneurs to collect narratives of their entrepreneurship start-up. The interview data were thematically coded and analysed. Links between the entrepreneurship motivation and the entrepreneurs’ net self-talk valence scores were plotted. The analysis suggests that those with positive self-talk typically had intrinsic motivation orientations, while those with negative scores had shared extrinsic motivational orientations. Contrary to the association of positive self-talk with motivation in sports, counterintuitively, negative self-talk’s link with motivation presents a novel finding. This finding is explained using the ‘push’ and ‘pull’ theories of entrepreneurial motivation. The study recommends deductive testing for this inductively explored relationship.

Self-talk is a well-researched component of self-efficacy that is
frequently used as a motivational tool in sports. This study
investigated how self-talk, as a component of entrepreneurship
self-efficacy, relates to entrepreneurial motivation orientation. An
online survey measured the self-talk valence of twenty-four
entrepreneurs. Subsequently, interviews were conducted with the
same entrepreneurs to collect narratives of their entrepreneurship
start-up. The interview data were thematically coded and
analysed. Links between the entrepreneurship motivation and the
entrepreneurs’ net self-talk valence scores were plotted. The analysis
suggests that those with positive self-talk typically had intrinsic
motivation orientations, while those with negative scores had
shared extrinsic motivational orientations. Contrary to the association
of positive self-talk with motivation in sports, counterintuitively,
negative self-talk’s link with motivation presents a novel finding.
This finding is explained using the ‘push’ and ‘pull’ theories of
entrepreneurial motivation. The study recommends deductive
testing for this inductively explored relationship.

This hermeneutic phenomenological study investigated the role of self-talk in the maturation process of leaders who faced various challenges. Through in-depth interviews with seven leaders from diverse professional backgrounds, the research aimed to decipher how self-talk contributed to self-development and the overcoming of leadership obstacles. The study delved into the experiences of individuals, intertwining their stories with the personal (reflexive) journey of the principal researcher.

The results underscored the multifaceted applications of self-talk in both personal development and leadership. Awareness of one’s internal dialogue was a precursor to harnessing self-talk constructively. This consciousness enabled individuals to discern and modify ‘patterns’ and ‘triggers’ in their self-talk, transforming it from a passive to an active tool for personal change. The study revealed that while most self-talk was internal, leaders often supplemented it with reflective practices such as meditation, enhancing its efficacy.

Central to leadership emergence was personal growth, often ignited by emotive responses to life’s trials. The research participants acknowledged that facing one’s self-dialogue required courage, yet it was this very process that catalysed personal evolution.

The study’s conclusions affirmed the importance of self-talk in navigating emotional landscapes and altering behaviours crucial for effective leadership. It noted that self-talk was not always accurate; its validity may have waned over time, necessitating continuous scrutiny to ensure it remained conducive to reality. Ultimately, self-talk emerged as a pivotal element in transcending personal challenges and fostering the qualities necessary for authentic leadership.

Objectives: To determine the effect of self-talk on softball throwing performance. Additionally, two moderators, nature of self-talk and type of motor task, as well as a potential mediator of selfefficacy were examined. Design: An experimental, within-subjects, and counterbalanced design. Methods: Forty-two senior high students (mean age = 17.48 ± 0.55) were instructed to use instructional, motivational, and unrelated self-talk with counterbalanced order prior to softball throwing for accuracy and distance tasks. Results: Both instructional and motivational self-talk conditions had better performance than unrelated self-talk on softball throwing accuracy, whereas motivational self-talk had better performance than both instructional and unrelated self-talk in softball throwing for distance. Results for self-efficacy were similar, with self-efficacy for accuracy performance higher in both instructional and motivational self-talk conditions than with unrelated self-talk, while selfefficacy was highest in the motivational self-talk condition and lowest with unrelated self-talk. Significant correlations between self-efficacy and motor performance were also found with both tasks. Conclusion: These findings partially support the task-matching hypothesis, confirm the moderator role of type of self-talk and task type, suggest that self-efficacy has a mediator role, and provide direction for self-talk effectiveness.

The purpose of present study was to investigate the effect of attentional focus treatment by self-talk on anxiety, before basketball free throw, and transfer of learning to pressure situation. Therefore, 33 novice female students (mean of the age=22±2.1 yr.) and intermediate trait anxiety were selected randomly. The participants were assigned to 3 matched groups according to pretest. The self-talk with internal and external focus groups repeated the words "wrist" and "center of ring", respectively, before each free throw during 6 sessions (2 blocks of 10 trials in each session). Control group performed the free throws without self-talk. Transfer test was performed 48 hours after the acquisition phase with spectators. Throw accuracy and state anxiety was measured by a 5-point scale and Illinois self-evaluation questionnaire (CASI-2), respectively. Results of repeated measures and mix 2-factor ANOVA did not indicate significant differences between acquisition, transfer, and state anxiety of groups in different phases (p>.05), but the within subjects effect of self-talk with external focus of attention on transfer to pressure situation was significant (p<.05). Therefore, it is not necessary to shift intentional focus by self-talk for anxiety decrement and accuracy of free throw improvement in relative novice basketball players.

هدف پژوهش بررسی اثربخشی مداخلات روان‌شناسی مثبت‌گرا بر تاب‌آوری بیماران زن مبتلا به مولتیپل اسکلروزیس شهر کرمانشاه بود. طرح پژوهش یک طرح نیمه آزمایشی از نوع پیش‌آزمون - پس‌آزمون و پیگیری یک‌ماهه با گروه کنترل بود. برای انجام پژوهش ابتدا از میان بیماران زن مراجعه‌کننده به انجمن مولتیپل اسکلروزیس (ام.اس) شهر کرمانشاه 30 نفر به روش نمونه‌گیری هدفمند انتخاب و به شکل تصادفی در گروه آزمایش و گروه کنترل جایگزین شدند. هر دو گروه با استفاده از پرسشنامه تاب‌آوری کانر و دیویدسون ارزیابی شدند. مداخلات روان‌شناسی مثبت‌گرا در گروه آزمایش به مدت 8 جلسه 90 دقیقه‌ای اجرا شد. نتایج تحلیل کواریانس نشان داد که مداخلات روان‌شناسی مثبت‌گرا تاب‌آوری بیماران مبتلا به مولتیپل اسکلروزیس را در مرحله پس‌آزمون و پیگیری افزایش داده است. نتایج پژوهش نشان داد که مداخلات روان‌شناسی مثبت‌گرا می‌تواند به‌عنوان روشی کارآمد برای افزایش تاب‌آوری بیماران مبتلا به مولتیپل اسکلروزیس استفاده شود.

Reading is a critical process for conscious learning and enhancing knowledge; however, little is known about reading in interpreters' professional lives. We used an online survey to collect information about the reading habits of signed language interpreters (n = 1,382) and spoken language interpreters (n = 601) to examine overall patterns, as well as variations, between the groups. The interpreters responded to questions regarding (a) engagement with reading types, (b) hours spent reading, (c) motivations for reading, (d) factors that reduce engagement in reading, (e) reading in which interpreters should engage, (f) relevance of reading to professional practice, and (g) priority of research topics for reading. Similarities were found between the groups, with divergence in three areas-reading preparation materials, reading research studies, and the types of research studies the participants wish to read. The results provide insights into professional interpreters' engagement with reading and its application to their professional practice.

Sport participation is an important part of the development of children and adolescents in the United States. Due to the popularity of sport-related films, coaches, athletic trainers, and parents have used these films to both educate and motivate pediatric athletes. The objective of this study was to develop a discussion guide template based on common positive and negative themes depicted in sport-related films, and demonstrate the application of this discussion guide template to a select number of sport-related films released from 2014 to 2018. A discussion guide template (“SPORTS ARE FUN”) was developed by the co-investigators, reflecting common themes of “ Sportsmanship, Participation for All, Obstacles, Relationships, Teamwork, Setting Realistic Goals, Academics, Responsibility, Exercise/Nutrition/Rest/Drugs/Performance Enhancing Drugs, Fun, Unrelenting Spirit, and “ No Pain, No Gain.” The authors hope that pediatric health care providers, athletic coaches/staff, and parents can...

Mental exhaustion has been affirmed to heighten subjective feelings of fatigue and to lower cognitive productivity, although its impact on physical performance in a poorly researched on area. From the studies that have been conducted in the past, it has been found that mental fatigue indeed impairs endurance during golfing, lowers motor-skills performance and derails the ability to make decisions properly. Despite these findings, it was found that mental fatigue did not have any impact on the production of maximal force, suggesting that it only affects sport-related performance during exercises done at submaximal intensity.

This research investigated how inner dialogue is experienced by rape survivors. Eight women were interviewed about their experiences and the data was analysed using Structural Existential Analysis (SEA). A novel application of SEA was developed and a step-by-step model for application and verification is provided. The findings are presented in two parts. Part 1 “Characteristics of Inner Dialogue” provides a novel conceptualisation of a personalised inner dialogical community, detailing its development, dominance, and functions with specific emphasis on self-creation, healing, and meaning. Part 2 “Long-Lived Experiences” offers in-depth understandings of how inner dialogue is experienced in the aftermath of rape. Implications and specific interventions for counselling psychologists, practitioners, the judiciary system, the general public, and survivors of sexual trauma are suggested and discussed in detail.

The findings conclude that inner dialogue is a multifaceted innate phenomenon, not a pathological symptom of mental unwellness. Active engagement with inner dialogue facilitates deeper connection with the self and increased control over life experiences. The experience of rape is not an isolated physical violation, it has the potential to violate all areas of a person’s lived experience, shattering previously held values with long-term implications for the victim and the people in their lives. The healing process is individually unique. Societies’ perceptions of stigmas, stereotypes, and rape-myths create hostile environments and directly impede healing from trauma.

This research aim to investigate the effects of motor imagery (MI), focused on the trajectory of the ball and the target area, and self-talk (motivational function) before the actual strike on the performance of the service in skilled tennis players. Thirty-three participants (6 females and 27 males, M age = 15.9 years), competing in regional to national competitions, were randomly divided into three groups: Control, MI, and MI + self-talk. They performed a pre-test (25 first service), 20 acquisition sessions (physical trial, physical trial + MI and physical trial + MI + self-talk), and a post-test similar to the pre-test, in match situations. The percentage of the first service, their speed, and the efficiency scores, evaluated by experts, were use as dependent variables and indicators of performance. While there was no difference in service speed (p > 0.05), this study showed an improvement in the first service percentage and efficiency (all ps < 0.01) in the participants of the MI and MI + selftalk groups. Additionally, analyses revealed greater efficiency when MI was combined with self-talk compared to other conditions. It, therefore, seems advantageous for skilled tennis players to use MI and motivational self-talk before performing the first service balls.

The popularity of golf sport in Malaysia has been linked to growing demands and this trend is expected to continue. Most of the golfer seeks specific needs and wants to meet their motivation satisfaction. Several studies have exp lored motivating factors for sports participation among people, but limited data availab le regard ing factors motivating golfer to participate in sports specifically by embracing the flow theory. Therefore, this paper attempts to provide insight into how motivation, task orientation, ego orientation, influences flow experiences of golfers. By using the purposive sampling, a total of 100 (n=100) golfer was interviewed using quantitative method. Three hypotheses were tested, two were significant and one was not accepted (task orientation). Thus, club managers need to manoeuvre the marketing strategy and focus on social aspect for the golfer engaging in golf and create pleasure experience. Future research needs to investigate the differences between ego, goal and task orientation that influence flow experience among other sport setting.

The paper aims to probe the rhetoric patterns featuring self-talk in the mediascape, with particular reference to the new forms of "public" soliloquy. To the fore is the rhetoric analysis carried out by Erving Goffman in Forms of Talk (1981), focusing on the conversational frames in which social actors develop their communicative actions: "with self-talk, then, one might want to say that a sort of impersonation is occurring". Self-talk is not only a dramatic genre or religious practice, but also a public conversational habit, as digital speeches or sermons confirm. According to Goffman, self-talk can be intended as "the stage-acting of a version of the delivery, albeit only vaguely a version of its reception" (Goffman, 1981, p. 83). Thus, it is possible to investigate self-talk as a conversational medium, practiced not only in the theatre or in the church, but also on the Internet and television. The purpose is to understand what kind of self-talks are most commonly diffused in daily life, assuming that "here is a crucial feature of human communication" (Goffman, 1981, p. 84). Specifically, the methodology concerns Goffman's frame analysis of self-talk, in reference to the rhetoric processes of "exaggeration, stereotyping, standardization of intensity" (Goffman, 1981, p. 84) of public speeches. This theoretic approach allows an emphasis on the convergence between sociology and communication in the analysis of self-talk, which can be paradoxically considered as a communicative strategy both in public and in private. Thanks to Goffman's analysis, soliloquy and public sermons can be considered relevant forms of contemporary self-talk, inspired by meaningful rhetorical patterns

Informed by conversation analysis (CA), this review on hypnosis comes at an exciting and critical time in the history of hypnosis, as hypnosis is now recognised as a clinically validated and cost-effective method for attaining physical, social and emotional wellbeing. For this reason, it is important that a review of hypnosis theories and research be conducted to promote deeper understandings of what hypnosis is. From this review, the chapter calls for educational (and other) planet shapers to scientifically investigate naturally occurring interaction between the hypnotist and the highly skilled subject in real world clinical settings so that our research might inform policy, theory, research, and practice. An implication from this review is that problems in agreeing on a single definition of hypnosis have been complicated by an overwhelming focus on the activities of only one of the participants in the hypnotic relationship, and by applying standardised experimental procedures in an effort to obtain "controlled" results. The chapter highlights the limitations with experimental studies of hypnosis interaction (between the hypnotist and the subject), and particularly deep hypnosis (between the hypnotist and the highly skilled subject). This review calls for researchers to bear in mind that we still know little when it comes to understanding the processes that are involved in interaction during deep hypnosis. The chapter concludes with a recommendation for the use of CA.

Gamesmanship is an act or verbal gesture used to psychologically unsettle opponents to gain an advantage in sport competition. Although verbal gamesmanship, colloquially known as trash talk, is most frequently used in the sports of ice hockey, American football, and basketball, it also has been found to occur in the game of golf. The purpose of this article is to help athletes, coaches, and sport psychologists to understand and develop strategies to cope with verbal gamesmanship in golf. To this end, verbal gamesmanship is described and the acronym PACE, theoretically grounded in a cognitive-behavioral approach, is presented as a tool that golfers can use to respond to verbal gamesmanship. PACE can help golfers to remind themselves to Pause, Assess, Concentrate, and Execute, all of which can be helpful when faced with verbal gamesmanship in golf settings. "Do you always have that hitch in your backswing?" "Good opportunity for a 3-putt here. " "If they want to find water on Mars, all they need to do is send you up there with your golf clubs. " "You know what your problem is? You're standing too close to the ball, after the shot. "

Millions of young athletes engage in youth sport every year at a variety of levels ranging from beginning instruction up through elite national competitions. Parents are frequently registering these youth in sport for a variety of benefits including the frequently mentioned purpose of "building character". Although a vague term, building character is often associated with the concept of moral behavior or sportsmanship. Youth sport professionals hoping to develop programs focused on the benefits of improving sportsmanship should understand how all aspects of their programs can either improve or hinder these types of behaviors. This requires a greater understanding of how the level of competition will contribute to both positive and negative sportsmanship behaviors. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine if differences in positive and negative sportsmanship behaviors exist at various levels of competitive youth sport experiences. To accomplish this, systematic observations occurred at two different soccer tournaments. The first tournament was designed for elite athletes in the Mountain West region of the US while the second tournament was more recreationally based and was located in the South East. A total of 62 games were observed of young athletes in the U-12 and U-14 age groups. Prior to observing these games, observers went through an extensive training to ensure that they could reach 80% agreement in their observations of both the positive and negative sportsmanship behaviors engaged in by the athletes, spectators, and coaches of each game. Results from this study suggest a lack of difference between the two competitive levels in terms of positive sportsmanship behavior, but a significant (p < 05) difference did exist between the elite athletes and recreational athletes in the number of negative sportsmanship behaviors demonstrated in a half game with the elite athletes engaging in nearly four times as many negative sportsmanship behaviors. Although some limitations do exist, youth sport professionals can use this information in a variety of ways. To begin, programs targeted at improving sportsmanship now know how to better target their efforts. This can be done through additional trainings for the programs serving elite athletes. Finally, it is important to note that programs at all levels were demonstrating many positive qualities. Consequently, it would behoove youth sport professionals to attempt to minimize the negative behaviors without eliminating the opportunities for athletes, coaches, and spectators to behave positively.

The rationale, structure, content, and presentation of the final version of Coué's method (c.1923) is described, analysed, and examined. Continuously, unjustly, and mistakenly trivialised as just a hand-clasp, some unwarranted optimism, and a 'mantra', Coué's method evolved over several decades of meticulous observation, theoretical speculation, in-the-field testing, incremental adjustment, and step-bystep transformation. It tentatively began (c.1901) with very directive one-to-one hypnotic interventions, based upon the approaches and techniques that Coué had acquired from an American correspondence course. As his theoretical knowledge, clinical experience, understanding of suggestion and autosuggestion, and hypnotic skills expanded, it gradually developed into its final subject-centred version-an intricate complex of (group) education, (group) hypnotherapy, (group) egostrengthening, and (group) training in self-suggested pain control; and, following instruction in performing the prescribed self-administration ritual, the twice daily intentional and deliberate (individual) application of its unique formula, "Every day, in every way, I'm getting better and better".

The Coué method is routinely dismissed and universally trivialised as nothing more than a hand-clasp, unwarranted optimism, and a 'mantra'. Rather than relying on incorrect, inadequate, misleading, and otherwise unreliable accounts, Coué's own descriptions are exhumed, presented, examined, and employed to reveal the rational, systematic structure of top-down theories, concepts, explanations, terminology, and representations embedded within the complex aggregate of efficacious ego-strengthening activities called the Coué method. Consistent with Coué's emphasis on orthopraxia, simple explanatory models are presented to facilitate a clearer, realistic, and far more productive understanding of the intricacies of the intellectual mechanism underpinning the remarkable approach that Coué conceived, meticulously developed, and incrementally refined over more than two decades of intense daily hypnotic and hypnotherapeutic experiences with a large population of subjects (severally and collectively)-and, further, as lecturer, teacher and demonstrator of his work to audiences of, often, many more than a thousand individuals.

The talented scientist, structured thinker, and successful apothecary, Émile Coué (1857-1926), transformed what he had learned of suggestion in the 1880s and scientific hypnotism in the 1900s into the Coué method of the 1920s. His method was an ordered sequence of rational, systematic, intricately constructed, subject-centred hypnotherapeutic interactions that stressed the significance of both unconscious and conscious autosuggestion, delivered a collection of well-polished common-sense explanations, a persuasive set of experiential exercises, a powerfully efficacious hypnotism-centred ego-strengthening intervention and, finally, detailed instruction in the specific ritual through which his empirically determined formula "Every day, in every way, I'm getting better and better" was to be self-administered twice daily. This paper examines Coué's work, the history and evolution of his method, the phenomenon of its wide-ranging impact during the 1920s in Europe, Britain, and the USA, and reflects upon aspects of its long-term influence on the domain of hypnotherapy and hypnotic suggestion.

Trash talking has rarely been studied within sociology at a time when the behavior itself has been flourishing in amateur and professional sports. George Herbert Mead's ideas on gestures, symbols, and language, in conjunction with the overarching transcendency of the community aid in understanding the development of self and the subsequent behaviors that emanate from and within trash talking in college athletics. Here a Meadian perspective is used to explain the act of trash talking at both macro-and micro-levels. Three areas were identified where Meadian philosophy applies: (1) the game and the role of the generalized other; (2) play and significant communication; and (3) self-development.

IntroductionResearchers (e.g., Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, Galants, & Theodorakis, 2011; Shannon Centner, Patel, & Muccio, 2012) have documented the potential for athletes&#39; self-talk to influence the quality of their physical performances. Because of this relationship between self-talk and the success of athletic performance, many researchers have attempted to gain insight into the characteristics of what athletes say to themselves, yet much of this research has been based on retrospective reports of athlete self-talk. The purpose of this study is to explore an alternate approach to understanding athletes&#39; self-talk through using concurrent verbalization in golf, as it allows mental processing time between athletic bouts. Practitioners and researchers expect that exploration of concurrent verbalization in such a sport is least disruptive of normal self-talk processes.Traditionally, researchers have explored athletes&#39; self-talk using retrospective methodologies, which nec...

Newell's learning stages model is a learning model based on dynamic systems theory which is divided to three stages based on the relationship among learners' degree of freedom. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of attention focus of instruction on learning a simple skill (throwing darts) and a complex skill (non-dominant foot chip shot). Thestudyconsistedoftwoexperiments. In thefirst experiment,24male studentsofUniversity of Tehran were instructed tothrow darts. Participantsweredivided into two groupsbased onpretest scores, and thenone group received internalfocusinstructionsand the otherexternalfocus instruction. Results showed that external attention focus was more beneficial when learning the skill of throwing darts. In the second experiment, 24 male students of University of Tehranwere instructedto perform non-dominant foot chip shot skill. Participants were divided into two groups based on their pretest scores, and thenone groupreceived internalattention focusinstructionsand otherexternalfocus instruction. The results showed that internal focus of attention was more beneficial when learning the non-dominant foot chip shot. Results of this study suggested that it was more useful to adopt an internal focusin skills whose coordinative structures have not yet formed.

This study aimed at examining the effect of different focus of attention instructions and cognitive styles on the learning of dart throwing skill. 80 children were randomly selected and divided into four equal groups: a) field independent-external attention, b) field independent-internal attention, c) field dependent-external attention and d) field independent-internal attention based on their pretest scores (10 trials of dart throwing). Then, in acquisition phase, they practiced 6 blocks of 10 trials of dart throwing task with regard to their focus of attention and cognitive style. Retention test was conducted 24 hours after the acquisition phase similar to pretest. After ensuring data normality by Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, ANOVA 4*6 with repeated measures was conducted on block factor and one-way ANOVA and Bonferroni post hoc test was applied in acquisition and retention phases respectively. Results showed significant differences in scores of all groups in all phases (P<0.05) and those with field independent style had better performance in external focus of attention than internal focus of attention and those with field dependent style had better performance in internal focus of attention than external focus of attention. In other words, cognitive styles must be noted during recruiting the focuses of attention.

Introduction: The purpose of the current study was to examine the simultaneous effect of the ‌transcranial direct current stimulation (tDSC) and observational learning on learning ‌of basketball free throw. ‌
Methods: In semi-experimental study with repeated measure design, 30 novice female ‌students in free basketball throw accessibly selected and randomly located in 2 ‌tDCS with model observation and artificial stimulation with model observation ‌groups. In pre test phase, participants throw 15 trials basketball free throw. ‌Intervention phase done in 5 consecutive days that each day electrical stimulation ‌of the brain was performed from the motor cortex (C3 anode & Fp2 anode), and ‌artificial stimulation with model observation, and then participants performed 15 ‌free basketball throws. In last session post test phase executed. One week and 21 ‌days after post test phase respectively executed short term and long term retention ‌phase. Data analyzed with ANOVA with repeated measure statistical method.‌
Results: The result indicated that tDCS with model observation (F= 22.327, sig =0.0001, η2 =0,615) and artificial stimulation with model observation (F= 3.044, sig =0.023, η2 =0,179) significantly improved basketball free throw. Other results indicated that ‌tDCS with model observation than artificial stimulation with model observation ‌cause improvement basketball free throw in post test (p=0.002), short term test (p=0.002) and long term test (p=0.001). ‌
Conclusion: Overall, the results of the current study indicated that tDCS with model observation ‌can be effective as a new training method in addition to model observation to ‌improve basketball free throw skills‌.

Introduction: Instructional self-talk is one of the cognitive processes and strategies that is assumed to be one of the appropriate and applicable interferential methods which can be practiced to improve individuals' performance. Hence, this study aimed to investigate the effect of instructional self-talk frequency on the older adult's conduction of motor performance. Method: This study is of semi-experimental research which is comprised of pre, post and retention tests. 36 older adults from the city of Ahwaz were equally assigned to 3 groups. 1-repetition instructional self-talk, 3-repetition instructional self-talk and no self-talk; respectively distinguished the first, the second and the third group that is considered as the control group. Firstly, the participants took a pre-test. Afterwards they practiced basketball chest pass skill for 2 weeks, 3 sessions a week. After the last practice session, the post test was done and 48 hours following the post test, the retention test was done as well. The criteria to participate in the study were full awareness plus psychological and mental health. The data was analyzed with combined and within group variance analysis at the significance level of (p<0.05). Results: The findings of the study indicated that the practice of self-talk with 1-repetition in comparison with 3-repetition self-talk and no self-talk, had a positive effect on elders in conducting the chest pass during post and retention tests (p<0.05). Conclusion: Briefly speaking, less alternated self-talk may improve older adult performance in conducting skills that are attention requiring such as basketball chest pass.

The present study aims to determine whether level of self talk behaviors of athletes is one of the determinants of their continuous confidence levels. Whereas totally 358 athletes (Xage= 23.77 ± 3.87) were voluntarily participated into this study, 180 of them were female (Xage= 22.76 ± 3.050) and 236 of them were male (Xage= 24.56 ± 4.263). Experiences of various branches of team sport and personal sports (soccer, basketball, volleyball, tennis, athletics, biking and etc.) in sport activities were determined as 98.25 ± 24.70. Whereas descriptive statistical methods were employed in analysis and assessment of collected data; t-test and multiple step regression analysis was utilized in independent samples. Aforesaid analyses were conducted through the SPSS package software and significance level was considered as P&lt;0.05. According to the study findings, a significant positive linear correlation was determined between self talk behaviors of athletes and their continuous sportive con...

This study presents the psychometric properties of a rating scale of sportsmanship in tennis competitions with young players. A total of 446 players used this scale to asses the games they played during a season (n=223). Analyses confirmed the discriminative capacity both sportsmanship (12) and unsportsmanlike (17) items, and high internal consistency of the overall scale (Cronbach's Alpha = 0,702). Moreover, the analysis made to assess the quality of sportsmanship in several tennis championships shows the scores associated with sportmanship and unsportsmanlike behavior and identify the players with the highest scores and lowest in sportiness, allowing the implementation of preventive actions.

The aim of this study was to compare observational models in learning motor task of receiving a volleyball ball and motor-cognitive task of juggling with 3 balls. The participants were 80 female students aged between 19 and 25. 40 subjects participated in each task. Participants were divided into 4 groups: novice model observation, expert, mixed and physical practice. All observational groups watched their own model via video tapes. In this study, some acquisition phases, retention and transfer tests were carried out in all two tasks. In acquisition phase, data were analyzed with ANOVA with repeated measures and in retention and transfer tests one-way ANOVA test and proper post hoc tests were used (P<0.05). In the acquisition phase, observation of expert-novice model in the motor task was better than the other groups but this predominance was not significant. But in the retention and transfer tests, observation of this model had a significant predominance. In the cognitive-motor task, the observation of novice model was better than the other groups during the acquisition phase, retention and transfer tests but this predominance was not significant in the transfer test. Finally,based on the results of the present study, it is suggested that various modeling methods should be used to learn different tasks.

The aim of this study is to determine the relationship between self-talk and mental toughness levels of kickboxers and to compare the differences between the self-talk and mental toughness of the athletes according to the independent variables obtained from the personal information of the athletes participating in the research. The study group of the research consists of athletes who participated in kickboxing competitions in Turkey (n=223). 120 (53.8%) of the athletes are women and 103 (46.2%) are men. In the study, the “Self-Talk Questionnaire” adapted to the Turkish athlete population by Engür (2011) and the “Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire” adapted to Turkish by Altıntaş and Bayar Koruç (2016) is used. It is decided whether the data met the prerequisites of the parametric tests by examining the Skewness and Kurtosis values (normal distribution of the data) and the Levene test (equality of variance) results. As a result, correlation analysis is used to determine the relation...

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of equipment modification on acquisition and retention of basketball free throw skill in children aged between 9 and 10 with an emphasis on working memory capacity. 40malestudents were randomly selected and divided into 4 groups of modified and standard equipment with high and low working memory capacity based on the Memory for Digit Span assessment by Wechsler. Mini-basketball rules were used as a reference. The acquisition phase included 10 sessions, 4blocks each session and 15 attempts each block. Free throw basketball test (AAHPERD) was conducted as the pretest and acquisition and retention tests were conducted after a week. In the acquisition phase, 2x2x2 multivariate analysis of variance (eqipement×working memory×test) with repeated measures showed that interactive effect between working memory (high and low) and test (pretest and posttest) on performance was significant. Also, interactive effect between equipment (standard and modified) and test (pretest and posttest) on performance was significant while the interactive effect of working memory, equipment and test on performance was not significant. In retention phase, 2x2 multivariate analysis of variance (eqipement×working memory) showed that the main and interactive effect of working memory and equipment on performance was significant. The results showed that the effect of equipment employment in working memory levels on performance was similar in both pretest and posttest and also it seems that the effect of the modified equipment on performance in retention test was better in children with low working memory than children with high working memory.

The aim of this study was to compare the effect of self-talk (ST), feedback (KP) and their interaction (STF) on acquisition and retention of basketball chest pass. 120 adolescent girls were selected and randomly assigned to 4 groups: KP, ST, ST + KP and control. This study was semi-experimental and pretest-posttest design with a control group. Instructional self-talk and knowledge of performance feedback were used in this study. After the pretest, each group had 4 practice sessions in the acquisition phase; then, they had posttest and 72 hours later they had retention test. One-way ANOVA and Tukey post hoc test were used to analyze data. Results indicated those subjects who used ST achieved better acquisition and retention scores than the other groups (P<0.05). ST was more effective than KP in the acquisition of chest pass skill. ST and KP can lead to a better and faster development of learning in the early phases

This study explored what caddies perceive as their role and the associated skills required to support golfers. Method Semi-structured interviews were completed with seven Professional male caddies from the United Kingdom (3 Caddies) and USA (4 Caddies). Interviews were audio recorded, transcribed and reflexive thematic analysis performed. Results Thematic analysis generated twenty-one lower-order themes and six higher-order themes, which were organised into three dimensions; (i) the demands of being a caddie; (ii) caddie's expertise to do the role; and (iii), importance of support. Conclusion Caddies demonstrate expertise in a range of areas from perceptual to intrapersonal skills when developing and maintaining effective golfer-caddie partnerships. Our findings highlight the skills the caddies require are role dependent. The findings from this study have implications on understanding future training needs for caddies in relation to maintaining effective golfer-caddie relationships and best practices to support caddies. A golf caddie is a person hired to carry clubs, rake bunkers, and provide other assistance, including on course support with shot selection and off course support with planning and preparation (Coate & Toomey, 2014). Lavallee, Bruce, and Gorely (2004) developed a four-component model detailing the role of a caddie which includes: a technical and psychological role (e.g., optimising the golfer's psychological state); supporting the golfer with his/ her final decision on what stroke to play; friendly role with a sense of being familiar and close to one another; and helping the golfer focus on the present. Further research has found caddies help to optimise the golfer's psychological state through helping the golfer to maintain their focus, provide a distraction preventing the golfer from dwelling on past mistakes or ruminating, and for maintaining and maximising flow states (Swann et al., 2015). Importantly, an effective golfer-caddie partnership has been shown to help golfers to improve their performance by one stroke per round, after controlling for other conditions (e.g., skill level of the golfer, tournament round, weather and course changes) (Coate & Toomey, 2014). Therefore, a caddie has become an integral part of a golfer's pursuit of a successful performance (Coate & Toomey, 2014; Swann et al., 2015).

This study explored what caddies perceive as their role and the associated skills required to support golfers. Method Semi-structured interviews were completed with seven Professional male caddies from the United Kingdom (3 Caddies) and USA (4 Caddies). Interviews were audio recorded, transcribed and reflexive thematic analysis performed. Results Thematic analysis generated twenty-one lower-order themes and six higher-order themes, which were organised into three dimensions; (i) the demands of being a caddie; (ii) caddie's expertise to do the role; and (iii), importance of support. Conclusion Caddies demonstrate expertise in a range of areas from perceptual to intrapersonal skills when developing and maintaining effective golfer-caddie partnerships. Our findings highlight the skills the caddies require are role dependent. The findings from this study have implications on understanding future training needs for caddies in relation to maintaining effective golfer-caddie relationships and best practices to support caddies. A golf caddie is a person hired to carry clubs, rake bunkers, and provide other assistance, including on course support with shot selection and off course support with planning and preparation (Coate & Toomey, 2014). Lavallee, Bruce, and Gorely (2004) developed a four-component model detailing the role of a caddie which includes: a technical and psychological role (e.g., optimising the golfer's psychological state); supporting the golfer with his/ her final decision on what stroke to play; friendly role with a sense of being familiar and close to one another; and helping the golfer focus on the present. Further research has found caddies help to optimise the golfer's psychological state through helping the golfer to maintain their focus, provide a distraction preventing the golfer from dwelling on past mistakes or ruminating, and for maintaining and maximising flow states (Swann et al., 2015). Importantly, an effective golfer-caddie partnership has been shown to help golfers to improve their performance by one stroke per round, after controlling for other conditions (e.g., skill level of the golfer, tournament round, weather and course changes) (Coate & Toomey, 2014). Therefore, a caddie has become an integral part of a golfer's pursuit of a successful performance (Coate & Toomey, 2014; Swann et al., 2015).

The Performance Demand Model for Sport (PDM; Males, Hudson, & Kerr, 2018) is based on four psychological fundamentals: mastery motivation, decision making, execution, teamship. Four elite coaches from canoe slalom, rugby sevens, rowing, and athletics evaluated the utility of the PDM model and later trialled it with elite athletes. Two sets of semi-structured interviews provided subjective statements that generally: (a) supported PDM process-based principles; and (b) post-field trials, endorsed the PDM for elite athlete use. With one exception, coaches used the PDM with athletes in different ways, reccomending customisation, simplification and a focus on specific training contexts to enhance utility.

The suggestion and the hypnosis has been used since ancient times, both magical religious and curative purposes.Considering that the disease creates a weakness, anguish and uncertainty, the patient is experiencing a period of regression and resignation which will increase the sensitivity to suggestion.To increase the effectiveness of psychotherapy, which is used in the treatment of mental disorders, it is necessary that between therapist and patient to be a reciprocal respect and consideration. The patient must believe that the therapist understands his problems, accept difficulties as being usual and solvable, this fact is generated him a sense of support and hope. Without trust curing the disease becomes almost impossible. Besides the direct approach of problems, even the non – verbal behavior of the therapist is very important, because it may be the vehicle of both positive and negative suggestions. The expectations of the patient have also a highly suggestive potential, either n...

This study examined the effectiveness of a logbook and paperclip technique on awareness of the use and content of negative self-talk as well as the motivation to change negative self-talk. Participants (n = 73) completed a questionnaire measuring these variables, and were assigned to either a control, paperclip or logbook group. Participants performed three typical training sessions over a three-week period. The logbook group completed a self-talk logbook after each session whereas the paperclip group carried out a paperclip exercise during each session. Upon completion of the training sessions, the questionnaire was readministered. ANCOVAs revealed no significant differences between the groups for motivation to change and awareness of the content of negative self-talk. However, the logbook group had significantly greater awareness of their use of negative self-talk compared with the control group. A qualitative analysis of the logbook group’s use of negative self-talk provided insi...