Private speech

Inner speech and self-talk have historically been misunderstood in both popular discourse and some psychological circles, often being framed as signs of pathology or maladaptive cognition. However, contemporary research from developmental psychology, cognitive neuroscience, and educational psychology highlights the integral role of internal and external monologue in self-regulation, problemsolving, executive functioning, and social-emotional development. Grounded in Vygotsky's sociocultural framework, this literature review synthesizes empirical evidence tracing how private speech emerges in early childhood, transitions into internalized cognitive processes in adolescence and adulthood, and remains a dynamic tool for navigating affective and cognitive demands across the lifespan. The review also critically examines prevailing stereotypes that pathologize self-talk, situating these within broader cultural and educational contexts that privilege silent, internal cognition. By integrating studies that span typical development and neurodiverse populations, this review underscores the adaptive value of monologic speech in promoting regulation of attention, emotion, and behaviour. Implications for inclusive educational practices and psychological support systems are discussed, particularly in relation to accommodating diverse cognitive styles in learning environments.

The present study is a first attempt to jointly investigate a broad range of cognitive and metacognitive monitoring capacities in bilingual and monolingual children, focusing on bilingualism as a potential moderator of age-related developmental trajectories. Two understudied samples were assessed: a maintenance bilingualism group of early Albanian-Greek bilingual children (second-generation migrants) and Greek-speaking (native) monolingual peers (145 children aged 8;4 to 12;10). Cognitive domains assessed included attention, inhibition, shifting, updating, working memory capacity, and planning, and metacognitive monitoring measures (prospective and retrospective estimates of performance and task ease) were also obtained. Frequentist and Bayesian moderated regression analyses were conducted, controlling for non-verbal intelligence and parental SES. Beyond the expected age-related improvements in cognitive and metacognitive abilities, the analyses showed only three moderating patterns: more accurate monitoring of task demands (as indicated by global speed in the attention task) with age, but only among monolinguals; age-related improvements in non-verbal planning and the accuracy of related prospective ease judgments, both observed only among bilinguals. Bilingual children also showed lower accuracy than monolinguals in proactive ease estimations in the attention task. Overall, the findings challenge claims of general bilingual advantages in executive function and their developmental nature, extending null results to metacognitive monitoring. The evidence supports a close interplay between developing cognitive and metacognitive functions—both central to the top-down regulation of thought and action toward goal-directed behaviour. The discussion underscores the need to explore how individual and contextual factors interact to shape cognitive and metacognitive development in childhood.

Multilingual education is gaining recognition for its role in forming initial cognitive improvement in an increasingly internationalized world. This conceptual research analyzes the cognitive advantages of bilingualism among primary school children, emphasizing executive utility, cognitive suppleness, and memory retention. As a theoretical synthesis, this paper integrates and interprets previous empirical studies rather than presenting original data. A conceptual analytical framework was outlined to compare existing findings on monolingual and bilingual learners using standardized verbal and non-verbal reasoning measures. Qualitative insights were synthesized from prior studies involving parent interviews and teacher observations. It is proposed by the findings that initial bilingual learners leave their monolingual peers behind in tasks demanding cognitive transfer and problem-solving, hinting at improved executive functioning. However, early delays in the improvement of vocabulary were displayed by a subset of bilingual children, which was diminished through ingenious bilingual assistance curricula. The research adds to a profound comprehension of the cognitive and socio-emotional repercussions of bilingual education and provides workable perceptions for educationalists and policymakers aiming to execute helpful multilingual educational tactics.

Over a decade ago, published his literature review that contained a working definition that has shaped subsequent studies about self-talk, contributing to the noticeable expansion of this research area. The rapid development of the self-talk literature in sport since then has bred the need to rethink how self-talk is conceptualized. The purpose of the present article was twofold: (a) to review how conceptualizations of self-talk and the associated research perspectives have changed during the past decade and (b) to introduce a new integrative conceptualization of sport self-talk. We identify two main developments that alter our view of what self-talk is, reinforcing the need for a new conceptualization: The identification of two distinct self-talk entities (organic self-talk and strategic self-talk); and the distinctions between spontaneous and goal-directed self-talk, as these emerged within organic self-talk. Consequently, we propose a new integrative conceptualization of self-talk. We believe that for such a conceptualization to be sufficient so as to guide future research, several attributes of self-talk ought to be recognized: the necessary and sufficient attributes that define self-talk, and important descriptive attributes, including overtness, interpretation, origins, and functions, which facilitate the understanding and the study of the self-talk phenomena.

Nesta instigante obra, de interesse àqueles que buscam compreender a aquisição da linguagem pela criança, questões concernentes à fala egocêntrica e à relação pensamento-linguagem, Junefelt traz dados de uma criança cega (Anders) que vinha acompanhando há oito anos. O episódio escolhido para as reflexões da pesquisadora revolve em torno de uma atividade de elaboração de um conto de fadas por Anders (aqui com oito anos de idade), que é filmado enquanto desenvolve e escreve seu conto, acompanhado apenas de seu constante e inseparável companheiro: o boneco Fredrik. Porém, enquanto elabora e escreve, Anders dialoga com Fredrik. Alterando seu tom de voz, Anders personifica Fredrik. Realizando, pois, uma análise criteriosa, meticulosa e detalhada desse episódio, Junefelt, a partir da perspectiva bakhtiniana de linguagem, objetiva reabrir a discussão sobre a fala egocêntrica, que tem sido, desde Piaget e Vygotsky, tomada como um estágio no desenvolvimento comunicativo e cognitivo da criança, ainda que de perspectivas diferentes 1 . Questionando o enfoque primordialmente individualista e monológico nas análises dessa fala -em que o "eu" e o "outro" são considerados em termos de alienação e oposição -, bem como algumas das proposições tanto de Piaget quanto de Vygotsky, Junefelt não somente analisa os dados sob o enfoque dialógico, mas, para pontuar as formulações das quais discorda, realiza um movimento talvez único: efetua primeiramente a análise sob a perspectiva tanto piagetiana como vygotskiana. Assim, de forma a atingir seus objetivos, a pesquisadora divide o livro em sete capítulos. No primeiro, aponta como a aquisição da linguagem pela crian-

Silent reading frequently entails engaging the "inner voice," a phenomenon in which individuals subvocally articulate words in their minds. This inner voice is understood to stem from the internalization process, wherein external verbal speech transitions into internal dialogue. However, the mechanisms through which foreign language learners internalize written content, particularly in a speed-reading framework, remain under-explored due to the inherent difficulties in observing such a process. To shed light on this, a qualitative study was carried out; it employed journals and the recall technique to examine the initial stages of internalization of written text by foreign language learners within a speedreading program. This program aims to enhance the pace and comprehension of reading English texts. The study reveals that learners start to internalize the written language through a series of inner speech uses such as subvocalization, literal translation, repetition, fluent reading, and the formation of mental imagery associations with the language. The findings further indicate that, as learners advance in the speed-reading course, their mental translation efforts become more subconscious, facilitating the 1 She holds an M.A. in Education: Human Development, from Universidad de San Buenaventura; an online Specialist Degree in Academic English: Writing, from the University of California; a Specialist Degree in Reading and Writing, and a B.Ed. in Modern Languages with a focus on English and French, from Universidad del Cauca.

Grammar development is an important part of any language learning process and researching how to enhance grammar development of EFL learners is one of the main concerns of educators in language learning and teaching areas. This paper focuses on the role of languaging in grammar development of Iranian intermediate EFL learners. The participants in this experimental study were seventy two male and female intermediate EFL learners, assigned to three groups, languaging group, Inductive group and deductive group, each including twenty four learners, receiving different treatments of grammar teaching during three sessions each lasting 90 minutes. A pre-test/pos-test design was used and the attitudes of the participants in languaging group were gathered based on an interview after the treatment procedure. Analysis based on ANOVA and Post-Hoc tests indicated that languaging in comparison with inductive and deductive grammar teaching leads to a better grammar development of Iranian EFL learners in shortterm, the findings also showed that inductive grammar teaching in comparison with languaging and deductive grammar teachings leads to a better grammar development of Iranian EFL learners in longterm. Nearly seventy percent of the participants in languaging group had a positive view on the langauaging technique as a tool to learn grammar.

Why the Assault on "Dark Money" Threatens Free Speech -and How to Stop the Assault by Nick Dranias * "Don't underestimate the common man. People are intelligent enough to evaluate the source of an anonymous writing. They can see it is anonymous. They know it is anonymous. They can evaluate its anonymity along with its message, as long as they are permitted, as they must be, to read that message. And then, once they have done so, it is for them to decide what is 'responsible', what is valuable, and what is truth.

This study critically examined the cognitive benefit of early childhood bilingualism, focusing on three central domain, executive function, memory retention, and problem solving abilities. The research sample comprised 80 participants 40 bilingual and 40 monolingual children aged 6 to 8 years. Data collected through standardized cognitive assessments and detailed parental surveys, integrating of both quantitative and qualitative perspectives to develop a comprehensive understanding of cognitive performance and Linguistic development in early childhood.                                                                    The primary objective was to determine whether bilingualism was associated with enhanced cognitive performance compared to monolingualism, particularly in tasks requiring cognitive flexibility, working memory, attention control, adaptive problem-solving . This investigation situated itself within broader debates in cognitive psychology and development Linguistics, aiming to refine our understanding of how early dual-language management shaped broader intellectual and emotional capacities. Additionally,the study explored how specific patterns of language use, such as frequent code-switching, might have further amplified cognitive advantages.                              Employing a rigorous mixed-methods design, the research combined standardized test data with parental observations, ensuring that both measurable outcomes and contextual factors were considered .quantitative analyses provided empirical evidence of performance differences across cognitive domains, while qualitative data captured the subtitles of how bilingual cognitive skills manifested  in daily environment. This methodological triangulation strengthened the ecological validity of the findings, offering a nuanced and multidimensional perspective on bilingual cognitive development.                                                                                                Preliminary expectations were that bilingual children would outperform monolingual peers in executive functioning tasks, demonstrating superior cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, and task-switching efficiency. Enhanced memory retention,faster information retrieval, and superior problem-solving skills, including abstract reasoning and creative thinking, were also anticipated. Furthermore, early signs of metalinguistic awareness a key indicator of advanced language processing were expected to emerge more prominently among bilingual participants. These outcomes had direct implications for educational practice,suggesting that bilingual education programs might foster significant cognitive,academic, and social advantages from an early age.                                                                                                            The broader significance of these findings extended beyond academic performance. For educators, policymakers, curriculum designers, and parents, the results advocated for early and sustained bilingual education as a catalyst for cognitive, emotional, and social development. The evidence supported the notion that cultivating bilingualism equipped children with the mental agility, creative problem-solving abilities, intercultural competencies essential for thriving in an increasingly globalized society.                                    Ultimately, this research contributed to ongoing scholarship advocating for multilingual education as a transformative strategy in child development. By reinforcing the cognitive, academic, and socio-emotional benefits of bilingualism,the study sought to influence educational policies and classroom practices that prioritized linguistic diversity. Embracing bilingualism from early childhood emerged not only as a linguistic asset but also as a crucial tool for nurturing globally minded, cognitively resilient individuals prepared to navigate and contribute to diverse and interconnected communities.

Este artículo describe una prueba piloto y el estudio de confiabilidad y validez de la prueba Escala de Observación de Estrategias Cognitivas y Metacognitivas EOECM, diseñada por Sáiz, Flores y Román (2010), con el fin de evaluar cuatro dimensiones: Atención, lenguaje (receptivo y expresivo), procesos de planificación y procesos metacognitivos. Para efectos de esta investigación, primero fueron seleccionados la atención y los procesos metacognitivos, se tuvo en cuenta la observación y el análisis de los comportamientos dados en la realización de una tarea antes, durante y después, en una muestra por conveniencia de 46 niños de 4 a 5 años de preescolar de la ciudad de Santa Marta. Para la validación se tuvieron en cuenta las cuatro dimensiones de la escala, en una muestra de 62 niños entre los 4 a 6 años de edad. Los principales resultados derivados del análisis de contenido por jueces expertos, muestran la validez y pertinencia de los aspectos formales del EOECM; asimismo, los datos de confiabilidad, obtenidos a través del alpha de Cronbach, indican la existencia de una consistencia interna razonablemente alta con un alpha de Cronbach de 0,878.

This mixed-method study investigates the effectiveness of integrating literature into English language instruction for students enrolled in diploma programs at a Saudi Arabian university, with a focus on how thematic analysis and creative pedagogical strategies enhance vocabulary retention, grammar comprehension, and learner engagement. Conducted over seven months, the research involved 120 diploma students (aged 18-20) divided into six groups, each facilitated by one of six English as a Second Language (ESL) lecturers. Data collection included pre-and postintervention vocabulary tests, grammar quizzes, classroom observations, and semistructured interviews with instructors. Findings revealed that students exposed to culturally relevant literary texts, such as simplified Arab folktales (Juha and the Donkey), demonstrated a 22% improvement in vocabulary retention, with terms like "honesty" and "tradition" retained most effectively. Grammar accuracy, particularly in past tense usage, increased by 12% following lessons using narratives like "The Gift of the Magi". Creative activities, including role-playing and group discussions, significantly reduced speaking anxiety, with 80% of students reporting greater confidence. However, engagement with Western texts (e.g., The Ant and the Grasshopper) was notably lower (30%) compared to locally resonant materials (70%). Key challenges included limited access to Arabic-English literary resources, as all lecturers relied on self-adapted materials, and insufficient training in literaturebased pedagogy, with three instructors explicitly stating a lack of confidence in designing creative lessons. Institutional pressure to prioritize standardized exam preparation further constrained implementation of innovative methods. The study proposes practical steps to address these challenges, beginning with the integration of Arab folktales and Saudi-authored texts into diploma curricula to align lessons with students' cultural identities. Professional development workshops for ESL lecturers should be prioritized to equip them with strategies for www.rjoe.org.in Oray's Publications

According to many scholars, inner speech plays a role of paramount significance considering human cognitive development. There have been traditionally two distinctive views considering the role of inner speech known as egocentric speech popularized by Jean Piaget and his disciple and private speech put forward by Lev Vygotsky and his followers. The present study rests on the Vygotskian perspective on the role of inner speech as private speech which is socially oriented. Additionally, considering the role of private speech in L2 acquisition, provided an excellent overview of some settings in which she identifies three main contexts: thinking aloud speech, embedded private speech, and self-regulatory utterances of second language (L2) learners. Drawing on a case analysis of adult L2 learner's private speech and making use of a qualitative content analysis, the present paper sheds more light on private speech in L2, illustrating its self-regulatory and mediating role in cases such as: 1) finding a point to start, 2) commitment and internal locus of control, 3) decision making, 4) selfaddressed questions and guiding behavior.

The present article is a critique of an earlier article by Frauenglass and Diaz (1985) on the interaction between private speech and cognition which appeared in this journal. In their study, Frauenglass and Diaz follow previous researchers in establishing a typology of private speech in which some categories of private verbalization are seen as relevant to the conduct of cognitive tasks while others are not. Although we do not disagree with the facts as set out by Frauenglass and Diaz, we argue that their interpretation of these facts misses the point with regard to how private speech is seen to regulate cognitive activity within Vygotskian psycholinguistic theory. Essentially, we claim that all forms of private speech are regulatory and that what matters is not a structural taxonomy of functions but the semantic content of private speech.

Private speech in children is a phenomenon that attracted the attention of child psychologist and scholars in the field of linguistics. The phenomenon has theoretical significance within both Piaget's and Vygotsky's works. While the term private speech has been by Vygotsky to refer the phenomenon, Piaget referred this phenomenon as 'egocentric speech'. It is a type of speech directed toward the self for communication and self-guidance of behaviour. Private speech, or speaking aloud to oneself, is a phenomenon of child development that Vygotsky interpreted as the critical transitional process between speaking with others and thinking for oneself. It usually occurs among children around the ages of two, when they begin to speak, and vanishes around the age of seven. Private speech has some unique function to perform in the psychosocial development of children. Its primary purpose is not communication with others, but with the self, and it contribute to the development of logical thinking and facilitate other psychosocial developments of children.

Private speech in children is a phenomenon that attracted the attention of child psychologist and scholars in the field of linguistics. The phenomenon has theoretical significance within both Piaget's and Vygotsky's works. While the term private speech has been by Vygotsky to refer the phenomenon, Piaget referred this phenomenon as 'egocentric speech'. It is a type of speech directed toward the self for communication and self-guidance of behaviour. Private speech, or speaking aloud to oneself, is a phenomenon of child development that Vygotsky interpreted as the critical transitional process between speaking with others and thinking for oneself. It usually occurs among children around the ages of two, when they begin to speak, and vanishes around the age of seven. Private speech has some unique function to perform in the psychosocial development of children. Its primary purpose is not communication with others, but with the self, and it contribute to the development of logical thinking and facilitate other psychosocial developments of children.

Investigations into the application of foreign language to mediate psychological activity have produced contradictory results. The present paper reports two experiments designed to examine the influence of L1 and L2 on cognitive regulation and private speech production. Results indicate the important role that L1 plays in cognitive reasoning of the participants. Advanced participants, however, had significantly better performance when they used L2 for mental activity. The language used for self-regulation though, did not seem to relate to the amount of private speech produced. More proficient participants, on the other hand, seemed to produce qualitatively different kinds of L2 private speech. These findings indicate that it is necessary to consider quality, not just quantity, when studying constructs such as cognitive regulation, private speech production and the relations between them. In addition, findings have important practical implications for both language learners and instructors in creating more constructive language learning environments.

Children's private speech has been widely studied among children, but it is clear that adults use private speech as well. In this study, illiterate adults' private speech during a ''school-like'' task was explored as a function of literacy level and task difficulty in a sample of 126 adults enrolled in a public literacy program. A main effect for literacy level was found-private speech was more internalized and less externalized among adults with higher literacy levels. Externalized private speech was more frequently observed among illiterate adults engaged in the most difficult task. Private speech served cognitive functions as indicated by the proportion of self-regulatory private speech and the proportion of private speech preceding actions being higher in the advanced literacy group and among illiterate adults doing the easier task. Internalized private speech, self-regulatory private speech, and private speech preceding action were each positively correlated with performance and negatively correlated with time to complete the task. The use of private speech in illiterate adults appears to be linked to the mastery of cultural experiences, such as literacy, similar to the selftalk of children.

Play is being squeezed out of early childhood education in the US. A recent re-port from the Alliance for Childhood [Miller & Almon, 2009, p. 15] summed up the situation for kindergarten: Too few Americans are aware of the radical changes in kindergarten practice in the last ten to twenty years. Children now spend far more time being instructed and tested in lit-eracy and math than they do learning through play and exploration, exercising their bod-ies, and using their imaginations. Many kindergartens use highly prescriptive curricula linked to standardized tests. An increasing number of teachers must follow scripts from which they may not deviate. Many children struggle to live up to academic standards that are developmentally inappropriate … At the same time that we have increased academic pressure in children’s lives through inappropriate standards, we have managed to under-mine their primary tool for dealing with stress – freely chosen, child-directed, intrinsi-cally motivated p...

Recent studies have noted that executive function and the use of self-regulatory private speech are related in childhood, and proposed that the critical leap that occurs in the development of executive function between the ages of three and six years may be due to the onset of language-based self-regulatory functions at this age. This research explored the relationship between executive function and private speech in a cross-sectional study of 81 children between four and seven years of age. The children performed an executive function task, the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS), and children's use of private speech was observed during a categorization task. The results indicated that, after controlling for children's age, gender, verbal abilities, and fluid reasoning, children's use of partially internalized private speech during the categorization task was significantly related to the number of phases successfully passed on the DCCS task, which required them to switch between card sorting rules. Children who used more partially internalized private speech were more likely to pass the most challenging phase of the DCCS task that assesses the ability to flexibly use different sorting rules according to a higher-order rule. We discuss the role of verbal mediation in the development of cognitive flexibility and its implications for the design of intervention programs for children who possess deficits of executive function.

Theoretically framed within Vygotskyan sociocultural theory of mind (SCT), Dynamic assessment (DA) is a new approach to classroom assessment offering mediation to help learners perform beyond their level of independent functioning. As a web-based qualitative inquiry into the nature of mediation in DA and its impacts on the participants' private speech patterns, this study explored the role of private speech as a social and psychological tool to mediate learners' thinking and performance in online DA. The subjects of the study were two Iranian university students along with two English native speakers orally narrating a series of picture stories and having weekly DA mediation with the researcher via Skype. In the present study, the students' private speech markers' typology emerged out of thematic analysis of oral narratives transcribed before and after DA mediation and it was presented as a criterion to evaluate the learners' progression towards selfregulation. The frequency of occurrence of the learners' private speech markers was reported and interpreted based on the emergent typology to evaluate the possible changes in their use as the result of DA mediation. Meanwhile, the differences between native speaker participants and the learners' use of private speech markers in oral narratives were highlighted and discussed. The results of the

The study was the first to investigate language use during social cognitive processing in preschoolers. The private speech of 42 Cantonese-speaking 3-to 5-year-olds in a social cognitive context that required preschoolers to encode, understand, and use the psychological properties of others in order to cooperate and compete with them was observed. Task performance was indexed by preschoolers' ability in manipulating and understanding another's mind, including belief understanding. Results showed that private speech was correlated with belief understanding in younger preschoolers and with manipulating minds in older preschoolers, even after controlling for age and verbal ability. This finding suggests that language, in the form of private speech, could regulate social cognitive processing.

Ecological validity The degree to which the thoughts recorded in a study reflect the thoughts that actually occur in natural settings. Inner speech The activity of talking to oneself in silence. Left inferior frontal gyrus Also known as Broca's area, the brain region that gets reliably activated during inner speech production. Predicativeness The syntactically compressed, condensed, abbreviated quality of inner speech. In inner speech, the speaker tends to only articulate the predicate, not the subject, for example, 'hungry' as opposed to 'I am hungry.' Private speech Self-directed speech emitted out loud by children for self-regulatory purposes. Rebound effect Rebound effect occurs when attempts at suppressing unwanted thoughts actually lead to experiencing them more often. Scaffolding Scaffolding is adult assistance only on those tasks that are beyond children's skills. Self-regulation Consists in altering one's behavior, resisting temptation, changing one's mood, selecting a response from various options, and filtering irrelevant information; also includes setting immediate and distant goals, problemsolving, planning, and decision-making. Working memory System that keeps a small quantity of information in an active state for a short period of time. Zone of proximal development The difference between what children can and can not do by themselves.

The pre-training and fine-tuning paradigm has contributed to a number of breakthroughs in Natural Language Processing (NLP). Instead of directly training on a downstream task, language models are first pre-trained on large datasets with crossdomain knowledge (e.g., Pile, MassiveText, etc.) and then fine-tuned on task-specific data (e.g., natural language generation, text summarization, etc.). Scaling the model and dataset size has helped improve the performance of LLMs, but unfortunately, this also lead to highly prohibitive computational costs. Pre-training LLMs often require orders of magnitude more FLOPs than fine-tuning and the model capacity often remains the same between the two phases. To achieve training efficiency w.r.t training FLOPs, we propose to decouple the model capacity between the two phases and introduce Sparse Pre-training and Dense Finetuning (SPDF). In this work, we show the benefits of using unstructured weight sparsity to train only a subset of weights during pre-training (Sparse Pre-training) and then recover the representational capacity by allowing the zeroed weights to learn (Dense Fine-tuning). We demonstrate that we can induce up to 75% sparsity into a 1.3B parameter GPT-3 XL model resulting in a 2.5x reduction in pre-training FLOPs, without a significant loss in accuracy on the downstream tasks relative to the dense baseline. By rigorously evaluating multiple downstream tasks, we also establish a relationship between sparsity, task complexity and dataset size. Our work presents a promising direction to train large GPT models at a fraction of the training FLOPs using weight sparsity, while retaining the benefits of pre-trained textual representations for downstream tasks. * Work done while at Cerebras Systems.

devclopment. The concept of creativity and some attributes of creativity subsumed in crcalirce children which private speech development lacilitate. The concept of private speech and crcatirc creativity in the use of language was also discussed. Among the recommendations made iere;Parents should encourage crcative activities and pay attention to their children's creations; they will olicn lind hints to their children's interests and emotional health. Parents and schools should create an cnvironments that offer self-rellection of children. Children develop their crcativity by participating in creative activities.

It is not new; the world has always been multilingual, and the ways in which we develop language learning and teaching success must take into account the multilingual realities of the world. We accept that English alone is insufficient. Multilingualism has always been the default discourse on human beings. Children in most parts of the world grow up with two or more languages available to them and increasingly young people in their studies and work move to places where languages other than their mother tongue are used, and they must learn to be bilingual or multilingual. Business, employment, and scholarship are increasingly global and multilingual, and 21st century citizens need a new range of skills and strategies, such as code-switching and www.rjoe.org.in

The present study investigates the impact of higher order thinking enhancing techniques as two post-reading strategies on the EFL students' reasoning power as determined by their private speech production. Also, the relationship between the learners' private speech production and their reasoning power is also investigated. In so doing, the study utilizes a quasi-experimental design with 30 participants in each control and experimental groups. The results of the pretest administration indicate that the participants of the two groups are homogenous regarding their language proficiency level as determined by the Babel Test, and their reasoning power as determined by the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (W-GCTA). The participants in the experimental group are instructed in a way to enhance their reasoning power based on 6 reading comprehension texts. WGCTA's two subtests of deduction and inference making which contain reasoning-gap tasks are utilized as the posttest. While the participants are engaged in carrying out such tasks, their private speech productions are recorded. Data analysis and transcription indicate that private speech which is categorized into 4 classes in this study has a positive and significant influence on the learners' reasoning power. Higher order thinking enhancing techniques are also found to have impact on the experimental group in enhancing their private speech production and subsequently improving their reasoning. The detailed results, discussion, and conclusions of the research are further presented.

#ennis>, ("The court below found as a fact, at pages 32a to 42a of the appendix to the jurisdictional statement, that there is a broad range of technologies and software programs that enable parents either completely to block all access to the Internet, if the parents are really concerned or, more selectively, to screen and filter access to the Internet if they want to allow their children to have access to certain parts of the Internet but not to others"). 13 This was the history of regulation of movies, and television, and radio as well, see Thomas G.

Investigations into the use of private speech by adult English foreign language (EFL) learners in regulating their mental activities have been an interesting area of research with a sociocultural framework. Following this line of research, 30 advanced adult EFL learners were selected via the administration of Oxford quick placement test and took a test of solving challenging English riddles while their voices were being recorded. Later, instances of the produced private speech were analyzed in terms of form, content, and function. It was demonstrated that private speech with its different forms, contents, and functions plays a very crucial role in cognitive regulation of EFL learners which has important implications for the context of language learning classrooms. In addition, participants seemed to produce qualitatively different kinds of L2 private speech, which brought us to the conclusion that it would be necessary to consider quality and not just quantity in studying psycholinguistic concepts, such as cognitive regulation and private speech.

The aim of the study was to assess self-reported individual differences in the use of the inner speech of adolescents with Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder (SCD) and in particular to answer the questions: Do adolescent with SCD have inner speech and what is the direction of this speech? Is this a monologue and internal dialogue, i.e., do they speak to themselves (internal monologue) or to other people (internal dialogue)? We tested 22 adolescents with SCD, diagnosed according to the DSM-5 criterion. The average age was 16.48 years, SD = 2.71. The youngest patient was 12 years old and the oldest was 19 years old. The modified version of the Puchalska-Wasyl Scale of Inner Speech was used for the study. The questionnaire was tailored to the capabilities of the persons with SCD and included questions about the occurrence of internal speech and the direction of this speech, that is, internal conversations to yourself (internal monologue) or to other people (internal dialogue). The patients participating in the experiment were informed in detail about the whole procedure and they or their parents, if they were under age, provided written consent for their participation in the experiment (according to the guidelines of the Helsinki Declaration, 2008). Statistical analysis showed that in adolescents with SCD there is a statistically significant relationship in the frequency of the monologue and internal dialogue. Persons who declared a more frequent occurrence of internal dialogue also declared more frequent occurrences of internal monologue, which means that they had the general ability for inner speech. A comparison of the direction of inner speech, that is the internal monologue and internal dialogue has shown that during inner speech they more often use internal dialogue than internal monologue. It was found that in adolescents with SCD, inner speech is present, and it manifests itself in the form of an internal monologue and internal dialogue. However, far more often do they use internal dialogue than internal monologue.

The aim of the study was to assess self-reported individual differences in the use of the inner speech of adolescents with Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder (SCD) and in particular to answer the questions: Do adolescent with SCD have inner speech and what is the direction of this speech? Is this a monologue and internal dialogue, i.e., do they speak to themselves (internal monologue) or to other people (internal dialogue)? We tested 22 adolescents with SCD, diagnosed according to the DSM-5 criterion. The average age was 16.48 years, SD = 2.71. The youngest patient was 12 years old and the oldest was 19 years old. The modified version of the Puchalska-Wasyl Scale of Inner Speech was used for the study. The questionnaire was tailored to the capabilities of the persons with SCD and included questions about the occurrence of internal speech and the direction of this speech, that is, internal conversations to yourself (internal monologue) or to other people (internal dialogue). T...

The present article is a critique of an earlier article by Frauenglass and Diaz (1985) on the interaction between private speech and cognition which appeared in this journal. In their study, Frauenglass and Diaz follow previous researchers in establishing a typology of private speech in which some categories of private verbalization are seen as relevant to the conduct of cognitive tasks while others are not. Although we do not disagree with the facts as set out by Frauenglass and Diaz, we argue that their interpretation of these facts misses the point with regard to how private speech is seen to regulate cognitive activity within Vygotskian psycholinguistic theory. Essentially, we claim that all forms of private speech are regulatory and that what matters is not a structural taxonomy of functions but the semantic content of private speech.

To code-switch or not to code-switch? This is a dilemma for many bilingual language teachers. In this study, the influence of teachers’ CS on bilingual children's language and cognitive development is explored within heritage language (HL) classes in Singapore. Specifically, the relationship between children's language output, vocabulary development, and cognitive flexibility to teachers’ classroom CS behavior, is examined within 20 preschool HL classrooms (10 Mandarin, 6 Malay, and 4 Tamil). Teachers’ and children's utterances were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed for CS frequency and type (i.e., inter-sentential, intra-sentential). 173 students were assessed with receptive vocabulary and dimensional card sort tasks, and their vocabulary and cognitive switching scores assessed using correlational and mixed effects analyses. Results show that inter-sentential and intra-sentential CS frequency is positively and significantly related to children's intra-sentential C...

años, mientras resuelven tareas de control de variables durante 9 sesiones. Se registraron el grado de colaboración y de planificación por adelantado. Los resultados muestran que la interacción con iguales proporciona experiencias de coordinación de planes que mejoran la planificación en colaboración. Sin embargo, no se alcanzaron niveles altos de planificación por adelantado. Después, este grupo fue observado en los mismos aspectos mientras resolvía una nueva tarea de planificar rutas y los resultados se contrastaron con los obtenidos por otro grupo equivalente, pero que había resuelto en solitario la tarea de control de variables. El grupo con experiencia en la planificación en colaboración transfirió esta habilidad a la tarea de recados y alcanzó altos niveles en la planificación por adelantado. El grupo sin experiencia, al fallarle la coordinación de planes no pudo mantener de forma duradera y consistente la planificación por adelantado. Los resultados indican que las niñas transfieren la planificación en colaboración y se adaptan al tipo de tarea en cuanto a la planificación por adelantado. Palabras clave: Interacción entre iguales, planificación en colaboración y por adelantado, transfer, dificultad de la tarea.

The aim of this article is to explore a range of largely embodied vocalisations and sounds produced by learners of string instruments and how they relate to the potential self-regulatory use provided by such vocalisations. This type of “singing” while learning to play an instrument may have similarities to the use of private speech in other types of learning tasks. This report describes a multiple case study based on the naturalistic observation of learners playing string instruments in different situations. We observed private rehearsals by six adult guitarists from different music cultures (classical, flamenco and jazz) who had different approaches to learning (traditional and constructivist). In addition, we observed the one-to-one lessons of a constructivist cello teacher with a 7-year-old beginner and a 12-year-old student. All sessions were recorded. We applied the System for Analysing the Practice of Instrumental Lessons to the video lessons and/or practices and participant d...

Point de vue d'un clinicien sur l'intention de communication en autisme : Un appel à revoir notre compréhension des comportements non-verbaux, du discours privé et intérieur et de l'écholalie chez les enfants ayant un trouble du spectre de l'autisme

Since the era of Piaget and Vygotsky, private speech (PS) has been widely discussed, but in recent years, the avenues for its study have greatly expanded. In this study, we explored the use of a recoding scheme for PS inspired by the studies of Pyotr Galperin. A coding scheme for social speech, PS, and the lack of speech, as the form of action (FA) has been proposed (i.e., external social speech, external audible speech, inaudible speech, and mental FA when no speech was produced). An exploratory study was conducted to elucidate the appropriateness of the coding scheme, both ontogenetically and during tasks. The results showed that both the coding scheme by type of speech and FA were adequate for differentiating ontogenetically between children. However, only the coding schemes of the FA were appropriate for differentiating between children as a function of their performance (i.e., time and scores) in a Tower of London task. Moreover, Galperin's scheme was more suitable when the...

In today's interconnected and rapidly evolving world, teamwork and effective communication are more vital than ever in the engineering industry. However, with engineers hailing from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds, language barriers can pose significant challenges to successful collaboration. In this article the researcher will explore how English language fluency plays a pivotal role in enabling global engineering collaborations to thrive. From understanding why effective communication is crucial in this field to discovering various resources for improving English proficiency, the researcher delve into everything an engineer need to know about this fascinating topic. So, let us dive right in and unravel the secrets behind successful cross-cultural teamwork in our increasingly interconnected global economy!