Early Childhood Development

Adolescents' reading comprehension skills are shaped by various activities and contextual factors. Identifying these determinants is imperative for improving academic performance. This study aims to assess how time spent on diferent activities-sports, smartphone use, social media, and educational apps-afects reading comprehension in Spanish adolescents. The study is based on PISA 2022 microdata, including responses from over 30,000 Spanish adolescents. We examined factors such as grade repetition, time spent on sports, access to books at home, smartphone and social media usage, and engagement with educational apps. We applied several machine learning algorithms using cross-validation and the R 2 metric to evaluate model performance and analyze data. Additionally, explainable artifcial intelligence techniques are used to interpret the results and highlight key predictors and their interactions. CatBoost yielded the best predictive performance, identifying key predictors of reading comprehension. The most infuential factors included grade repetition (negative impact), time spent on sports (negative impact), access to books at home (positive impact), smartphone use (positive impact), and social media use (negative impact). Educational apps were associated with lower comprehension skills scores. Digital tools in technology lessons enhance reading skills when used regularly. The study highlights complex relationships between technology use, sports, and reading comprehension skills. These insights can inform educational policies and interventions targeting balanced digital use and tailored support for students struggling with academic challenges. Highlights • Grade repetition and participation in sports negatively impact reading comprehension skills. Resumen. Las habilidades de comprensión lectora de los adolescentes están moldeadas por diversas actividades y factores contextuales. Identificar estos determinantes es fundamental para mejorar el rendimiento académico. Este estudio analiza cómo el tiempo dedicado a diferentes actividades —deporte, uso del smartphone, redes sociales y aplicaciones educativas— afecta a la comprensión lectora en adolescentes españoles. El estudio se basa en microdatos de PISA 2022, con respuestas de más de 30.000 adolescentes españoles. Se examinaron factores como la repetición de curso, el tiempo dedicado al deporte, el acceso a libros en el hogar, el uso del smartphone y de redes sociales, y la interacción con aplicaciones educativas. Se aplicaron varios algoritmos de aprendizaje automático con validación cruzada y la métrica R² para evaluar el rendimiento de los modelos y analizar los datos. Además, se emplearon técnicas de inteligencia artificial explicable para interpretar los resultados y destacar los predictores clave y sus interacciones. CatBoost obtuvo el mejor rendimiento predictivo, identificando los principales predictores de la comprensión lectora. Los factores más influyentes fueron la repetición de curso (impacto negativo), el tiempo dedicado al deporte (impacto negativo), el acceso a libros en casa (impacto positivo), el uso del smartphone (impacto positivo) y el uso de redes sociales (impacto negativo). Las aplicaciones educativas se asociaron con puntuaciones más bajas en comprensión lectora. Las herramientas digitales en las clases de tecnología mejoran las habilidades lectoras cuando se usan de forma regular. El estudio destaca relaciones complejas entre el uso de la tecnología, el deporte y las habilidades de comprensión lectora. Estos hallazgos pueden orientar políticas educativas e intervenciones dirigidas a un uso digital equilibrado y a un apoyo adaptado para estudiantes con dificultades académicas..How to cite / cómo citar: Rico-Juan, J. R., Navarro-Martínez, O. y Peña Acuña, B. (2026). Digital Habits and Time Use Patterns: Factors Infuencing Reading Comprehension Skills in Spanish Adolescent Based on PISA 2022. Human Behaviour & Emerging Technologies, 8388818, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1155/hbe2/8388818. Publisher name: John Wiley and Sons Inc (EE. UU.). Indexación: Alta relevancia. Fuente: JCR Q1 Psychology, Multidisciplinary in ESCI edition; JCI impacto 1.34 (2024), 2.09 (2023). Fuente: Scopus Citescore 11.3., 98% Ranking 5/285 General Social Sciences (2024). Fuente: Scimago Q1 impacto 0.9, Social Sciences (Miscellaneous) 2025. Open Access.

The present work builds on the affirmed desire of the Commission on Social Determinants of Health (CSDH) to be judged on both its scientific rigor and the policy implications that the Commission's work will generate. It contributes to the general discussion on the social determinants of health by complementing the work of the Commission's other Knowledge Networks and by focusing on the fundamental conceptual issues relating to Early Child Development and Education (hereafter ECD). The areas of focus for each of the Commission's Knowledge Networks-Globalization, Social Exclusion, Health Systems, Gender, Urban Settings, Employment Conditions, Priority Public Health Conditions, and Measurement-are critical to understanding the social determination of ECD, and as such will be integral to the work of the ECD network.

Ecopedagogy and Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) based on deep learning have a strategic role in strengthening gender equality in Early Childhood Education. This study aims to examine the application of ecopedagogy and Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) based on deep learning in strengthening gender equality in Early Childhood Education. The focus of the study is directed at understanding how a sustainability-oriented learning approach and deep leraning can instill the value of gender equity from an early age. The research location was carried out at Angkasa Lanud Adisucipto Yogyakarta Kindergarten group B with a sample of 30 people. Data collection used observation, documentation and interviews. Data analysis techniques used data triangulation including three stages starting from data collection, reduction presentation and drawing conclusions. The results of the study indicate that the application of ecopedagogy and Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) based on deep learning through the activity of making compost from wet leaves has a positive impact on strengthening gender equality in Kindergarten. Boys and girls are actively involved in all stages of the activity. This activity can foster an understanding that every child has the same opportunities and role in protecting the environment without any discriminationbased on gender.

This study investigated the connection between communication skills and interpersonal intelligence among first-year English majors pursuing a Bachelor of Secondary Education (BSEd). Utilizing quantitative methods, the research revealed a significant positive correlation between the two variables, leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis. Results show that students with better interpersonal intelligence, especially in empathy, social awareness, and relationship management, have excellent verbal, written, and listening communication skills. The strongest correlation between empathy and all communication domains was found, highlighting its critical role in effective interpersonal relationships. While the students generally exhibited strong interpersonal and communication competencies, the study identified specific areas for improvement. Although empathy exists, it requires further deepening to enhance emotional connection and compassion. Students' ability to read nonverbal clues, sustaining focused conversations, and practicing reflective writing. These domains underscore the potential for targeted interventions. Based on the results, the study recommends incorporating focused training in educational programs to develop empathy, social awareness, and relationship management alongside practical communication exercises. Such programs should include activities promoting emotional understanding, perspective-taking, and social skills, coupled with exercises in clear verbal expression, active listening, and organized writing. The purpose of these strategies is to fully improve students' preparedness for meaningful interaction and successful instruction. Further research is encouraged to create and assess intervention programs that focus on empathy and nonverbal communication, as well as to determine long-term effects on teaching performance, more study is required. The understanding of how communication skills and interpersonal intelligence support the overall development of future educators will be strengthened by expanding the focus to include a variety of educational situations.

The full form of ITEP is Integrated Teacher Education Programme. It is a four-year, dualmajor undergraduate degree program designed to prepare teachers for various stages of
school education, as outlined in the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. ITEP is a
flagship program of the National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) and is being offered
in pilot mode in 57 Teacher Education Institutions (TEIs). The program prepares teachers for
the four stages of the new school structure: Foundational, Preparatory, Middle, and
Secondary (5+3+3+4). ITEP offers a multidisciplinary approach to learning, including
cutting-edge pedagogy, grounding in sociology, history, science, psychology, early childhood
care and education, and foundational literacy and numeracy, among other areas. The program
aims to create passionate, motivated, qualified, and well-equipped teachers who can design
and implement developmentally appropriate learning experiences for students.

Background: Physical literacy, encompassing physical competence, motivation, confidence, and knowledge of physical activity, is essential for children's lifelong engagement in physical activity. Teacher involvement in active play has been identified as a key factor influencing the development of physical literacy, yet evidence from primary schools in Pakistan remains limited. Objective: This study aimed to examine the effect of teacher involvement in active play on the physical literacy of children aged 5-11 years in the Gujranwala district of Punjab, Pakistan.

Dil Edinimi Deniz Zeyrek Dil edinimi, çocuğun anadilini öğrenme sürecinde hangi unsurların etkili olduğunu kuramsal açıdan ve/veya deneysel yöntemlerle açıklayan bir çalışma alanıdır. Üretimsel dilbilim bakış açısı için dil edinimi özellikle önem taşır çünkü bu alandaki kuramların doğruluğunu desteklemek için dil ediniminin incelenmesi gerekli görülmektedir. Bu yazıda dil ediniminin bugün bulunduğu nokta üretimsel dilbilim ve bu görüşe zıt bazı yaklaşımların sağladığı kuramsal tartışmalar çerçevesinde özetlenmektedir. 1

Introducción: El proyecto INMA (Infancia y Medio Ambiente) es una red de investigación cooperativa que tiene como objetivos estudiar los efectos del medio ambiente y la dieta en el desarrollo fetal e infantil. El objetivo de este artículo es presentar el protocolo de exposición a contaminantes atmosféricos durante el embarazo y desarrollo prenatal y neonatal en el proyecto INMA. Métodos: La información para la evaluación de la exposición a contaminación atmosférica durante el embarazo se basa en mediciones de contaminantes atmosféricos en el exterior (dióxido de nitrógeno [NO 2 ], compuestos orgánicos volátiles [COV], ozono, partículas [PM 10 , PM 2,5 ] y su composición [hidrocarburos aromáticos policíclicos]), medición de contaminantes de exposición individual (en el interior de la vivienda y captadores personales [COV y NO 2 ]), determinación de un marcador biológico de exposición a hidrocarburos (1-hidroxipireno), en información recogida mediante cuestionarios y en la utilización de sistemas de información geográfica. Esta información permite elaborar índices de exposición individual a contaminación atmosférica con los que analizar su posible relación con el desarrollo fetal y la salud del recién nacido. Discusión: El protocolo que se presenta y el tipo de estudio permiten obtener una aproximación a la exposición individual a contaminantes atmosféricos. Por último, el elevado núme-ro de participantes (n = 4.000), así como la heterogeneidad de las características ambientales y sociodemográficas, acrecienta el potencial del estudio. Palabras clave: Contaminación atmosférica. Embarazo. Infancia. Desarrollo fetal. Estudio de cohortes. INMA.

This paper explores the psychological and developmental risks associated with unsupervised access to technology among children. While digital devices and internet connectivity offer immediate mental stimulation and opportunities for self-directed learning, they are also designed to capture attention and encourage prolonged use-often at the expense of healthy development. Drawing on recent research, the paper argues that unrestricted access to smartphones and tablets can negatively impact a child's cognitive, social, and emotional growth.

Educational practices in Early Childhood Development (ECD) environments continue to evolve globally, in pursuit for sustainable education. Modern trends in education had seen play-based pedagogy tremendously gaining recognition in ECD settings. This study delineates the richness of culturally relevant play-based pedagogy as a panacea for implementing the ECD Curriculum in Zvishavane District of the Midlands Province in Zimbabwe. A mixed paradigm coursing a mixed approach and a descriptive survey design formed this studys methodology. Fifty ECD teachers and ten Teachers-in-Charge were purposively selected from ten ECD environments in the District, to form the studys sample. Questionnaires, interviews and observations were data collection instruments used. The study found out that the utilisation of the culturally relevant play-based pedagogy was marred by a number of barricades, where some ECD educators were having limited knowledge on how to contextually utilise play for curriculum implementation, thereby becoming less confident in their educational practices. Community skepticism, cultural erosion, lack of cultural competences and training, higher academic expectations by parents, lack of access to digital resources and tools and limited digital skills, rigid curriculum and unsupportive educational policies were impeding on the endeavours to revitalise culturally relevant play-based pedagogies in the implementation of the ECD curriculum. The study therefore recommends the utilisation of culturally relevant resources in embracing culturally relevant play-based pedagogy for implementing the ECD curriculum. Multi-stakeholder collaboration, teacher empowerment to develop cultural competence, formulation of culturally supportive policies, availing digital devices and empowering ECD educators to use these resources and tools were  seen as a necessity to support culturally relevant play-based pedagogies for the effective implementation of the ECD curriculum.

Parandalimi i ekstremizmit përmes arsimit lidhet kryesisht me nxitjen e qëndresës së nxënësve ndaj ekstremizmit të dhunshëm dhe garancitë që mjediset arsimore të mos shndërrohen në terren “nxitës” për radikalizimin. Në praktikë, programet edukative dhe kurrikulat kanë në thelb forcimin e kapaciteteve të sistemeve arsimore kombëtare përmes hartimit të politikave, kurrikulave arsimore, kompetencave të mësuesve dhe stafeve mbështetëse, metodologjive të mësimdhënies, si dhe mjediseve të mësimdhënies e komunikimit strategjik, në mënyrë që këta aktorë e faktorë të jenë në gjendje të krijojnë mjedise të sigurta si pjesë e përpjekjeve parandaluese në nivel kombëtar.

El denominado Enfoque del curso de vida tiene como uno de sus principales referentes, al sociólogo norteamericano Glen Elder. Comenzó a desarrollarse plenamente en la década de 1970, destacándose entonces y continuando hasta la actualidad. Desde su concepción, el Enfoque del curso de vida ha sido una perspectiva caracterizada por la multidisciplinariedad debido a que, para su formulación conceptual, se sustenta en aportes que provienen de diversos campos disciplinarios tales como: la Demografía, Sociología, Historia, Psicología, Antropología, Biología y Epidemiología. No obstante, durante los años setenta y ochenta, la sociología de la edad (White Riley, 1988) brinda un aporte destacado que afianza las bases del enfoque mencionado: comienza a reconocer al envejecimiento ya no solo como una etapa de la vida -la tercera edad-sino como un proceso con dos características claves, por un lado abarca toda la vida humana y por otro, tiene su impronta en lo social. Asimismo, este Enfoque sostiene que analizar la naturaleza dinámica y recíproca del cambio continuo de las macroestructuras y las vidas humanas no es una tarea sencilla, postulado que afirma la necesitad de una perspectiva interdisciplinaria de abordaje. El Enfoque del Curso de Vida, tiene como objetivo comprender los cambios en la biografía de una persona, considerando sucesos de larga duración; es decir, eventos que acontecen a lo largo de la vida con un repertorio e intensidad determinada por el momento histórico en que se vive y las condiciones propias de cada individuo. Esta perspectiva, acerca a la comprensión de cómo el pasado y el presente configuran la vida. (Cenobio Narcizo, 2019) Es sabido que desde la mirada de las etapas evolutivas los distintos acontecimientos o cambios que experimenta una persona tienen efectos diversos dependiendo de su edad. El Enfoque del Curso de Vida, postula que también se ponen en juego otros factores de igual relevancia, como la raza, el sexo, la etnia y la clase social dentro de un tiempo y una sociedad determinada. Blanco (2011) postula que el eje de estudio más general del Enfoque del Curso de Vida es analizar cómo los eventos históricos y los cambios económicos, demográficos, sociales y culturales modelan o configuran tanto las vidas individuales como los agregados poblacionales denominados cohortes o generaciones. En sus principios rectores -expuestos a continuación-se establece que el estudio diacrónico de los fenómenos; la consideración siempre presente de los procesos y de lo contextual; apuntan directamente a la primacía que se le concede al manejo de la dimensión temporal. (Blanco, 2011

This article examines the integration of modern digital technologies into preschool education and their role in enhancing early childhood learning. It highlights how tools such as interactive whiteboards, educational applications, augmented reality (AR), and adaptive learning systems can create more engaging, interactive, and personalized learning experiences for young children. The paper discusses the b enefits of applying these technologies, including increased motivation, improved collaboration, and early development of digital literacy. At the same time, it addresses the challenges, such as screen time management, teacher training needs, and maintainin g a balance with traditional play-based methods. The findings emphasize that thoughtful and purposeful use of digital tools can enrich preschool education, preparing children for lifelong learning in the digital age.

for his invaluable guidance, whole hearted co-operation, constructive criticism and continuous encouragement in preparation of this dissertation without his support and guidance the present work would remain a dream. I take this opportunity to thanks all my scholar friends and batchmates whose solidarity and empathy has been of vital importance and who have been helpful in the completion of this dissertation in one way or other. Also, I am grateful to Mr. Vikas Kumar, (Village

Hand proficiency predicts hand preference poorly. But it is unlikely this explains the poor replicability of studies investigating cognitive performance in relation to handedness. Preference psychometry covers sampling (e.g. return rate), reliability, level of measurement (nominal, ordinal, or interval) and response style and set. Cluster analysis indicates there is a "mixed-handed" group as well as left-and right-handers. The problem about the criteria to define this middle group explains the widely varying estimates of its size (in a random sample), from 8% to 29%. Research on speech laterality and handedness, using techniques like amytal unilateral anaesthetization, fMRI and fTCD, also now investigates a middle group. Mixed-handedness is hard to determine with too short an inventory: we recommend at least six items. The standard inventory of items is the Edinburgh ten, but three of these need to be discarded, and the whole instrument has been subjected to searching critique. Many studies report a single factor of handedness, and the minority of discordant studies have long inventories of items or samples selected for handedness. We recommend for neurological research not more than twelve items. Items can be evaluated in terms of their loadings on the (main) handedness factor. There is consensus that there are more right-than mixed-or left-handers, regardless of time or place. But prevalence estimates are unavoidably dependent on procedural choices. There may be a slight preponderance of male left-handers, and there tend to be fewer left-handers in older age-cohorts. But the interpretation of these findings is unclear.

Sustainable play practices offer many benefits to young children, developmental and cultural, and these are examined in an English context. The authors claim a shared European heritage for children's play practices; one that has been eroded with the commodification of play materials, the manufacture of commercial toys and games accessible only to the wealthy child. After demonstrating the value of education for sustainable development, the chapter considers how reclaimed resources can be used to promote this end. It discusses a small-scale research project that visited four English early years settings to see whether and how the staff followed sustainable principles. It was found that the approaches of the four settings varied considerably, using resources that spanned the spectrum from commercial to natural, and concluded that more should/could be done to encourage play with reclaimed materials to set children on the path to greater environmental awareness and intercultural har...

This article applies cultural translation theory and cultural historical theory to question whether Western conceptualizations of play are transferable to China. In this qualitative research study, I conducted semi-structured interviews with 11 teachers from two kindergartens located in a Chinese province to discover teachers’ definitions and conceptualizations of play, as well as to understand whether children’s play experiences are more aligned with the West or the Chinese cultural context. From the thematic analysis, it was discovered that while some teachers could not define play, others understood the pedagogical approach as a learning tool for knowledge acquisition. Furthermore, teacher-led games were prominent in the research setting, illustrating the role of Confucianism in positioning the teacher as a leading agent in the classroom. It was also found that from the teachers’ perspectives, children enjoy structured games or play-based activities. Hence, it is concluded that Western conceptualizations of play cannot simply be transferred to China without the use of cultural translation. Based on the interview findings, this article proposes a novel Culturally Situated Conceptual Play Model for supporting Early Childhood Education practice in China, highlighting the imbalance between structured play (yóuxì) and unstructured play (wán shuǎ). The new model can be used to inform policymakers globally about the creation of culturally specific play pedagogies and the importance of culturally appropriate play models. It can support teachers in reflecting on their play activities, drawing out conversations regarding the potential increase in wán shuǎ opportunities for children.

This study aimed to identify common behavioral red flags among young children in private early childhood schools in Camarines Norte and to propose appropriate interventions. Using a descriptive-comparative design with 52 respondents (teachers, administrators, and parents), it found that behaviors such as lack of empathy, teasing, and refusal to share were frequently observed. Environmental and social factors like high family conflict, lack of parental involvement, poor classroom management, and parental separation were identified as key contributors. While no significant differences were found in stakeholder perceptions, their focus varied depending on their roles. Common interventions included positive reinforcement and classroom behavior plans, while individualized support and expert collaboration were less utilized. Teachers highlighted challenges such as limited training and awareness of behavioral policies. In response, the researcher developed a Behavior Policy Handbook for Teachers and Parents to guide school stakeholders, The study recommends implementing social-emotional learning programs, regular teacher training, increased family engagement, and enhanced use of individualized interventions to improve behavioral outcomes in early childhood settings.

Jamaica's economic potential is currently constrained by a persistent productivity ceiling driven by systemic disruptions that traditional, siloed developmental frameworks fail to address. This paper introduces the Parenting-Productivity Nexus, an original governance pipeline framework that elucidates the sequential and causal relationships between family systems, human capital formation, vocational certification, and labor market output. Utilizing a critical synthesis of existing human capital theories and a contextual analysis of contemporary Jamaican shocks-specifically the COVID-19 pandemic, Hurricane Melissa (2025), and the PEP curriculum "scaffolding gap"-the framework identifies specific points of "leakage" where human potential is lost. The study finds that national productivity failures are terminal symptoms of cumulative distortions, most notably the fracture of family governance and the institutional "mission drift" of the Vocational Training Development Institute (VTDI). By reframing human capital as a continuous governance pipeline, this paper offers a diagnostic tool for policymakers to move beyond patchwork interventions toward systemic repairs. This localized, resilient model provides a vital roadmap for optimizing productivity in Jamaica and other Small Island Developing States (SIDS) facing high environmental and institutional volatility.

Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) has been accorded a central role in India's education reform agenda through the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. While the policy presents a comprehensive framework for strengthening foundational learning, empirical evidence on its ground-level implementation remains limited, particularly in geographically diverse states. This study examines stakeholder perceptions regarding the implementation of NEP 2020 in ECCE in Uttarakhand, with specific focus on policy awareness, institutional readiness, and policy implications. The study adopts a cross-sectional survey design and is based on primary data collected from 120 respondents, including teachers, administrators, parents, and education officials, drawn from plain, mid-hill, and hilly districts of the state. A structured questionnaire was used, and data were analysed using descriptive statistics, inferential techniques, and regression analysis. The findings reveal moderate to high awareness of NEP 2020 ECCE provisions among stakeholders; however, significant gaps persist in training, infrastructure, and institutional preparedness, particularly in hilly and remote regions. Institutional readiness emerged as a stronger predictor of perceived implementation effectiveness than policy awareness alone. Despite these challenges, stakeholders expressed strong optimism regarding the potential of NEP 2020 to improve access to quality ECCE and reduce regional disparities. The study underscores the importance of context-specific implementation strategies, capacity building, and strengthened institutional coordination to translate policy intent into effective outcomes. The findings contribute to the emerging empirical literature on ECCE policy implementation in India and offer policy-relevant insights for strengthening NEP 2020 execution at the sub-national level.

Child psychology is a dynamic and multifaceted discipline that examines the mental, emotional, cognitive, and social development of children from birth through adolescence. This article provides a comprehensive review of the foundational concepts underpinning the field, drawing upon seminal theoretical frameworks including Piaget's stages of cognitive development, Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, Erikson's psychosocial stages, and Bowlby's attachment theory. The article further explores key areas of developmental inquiryincluding language acquisition, moral development, emotional regulation, and the influence of environmental and familial contextsto offer a consolidated understanding of how children grow, learn, and adapt. The discussion underscores the practical implications of these theories for educators, caregivers, and policy-makers working in diverse cultural settings, with particular reference to bilingual and multicultural environments. By synthesising classical and contemporary research, this review aims to serve as a foundational reference for practitioners and researchers in the field of child development and educational psychology.

Background: AbilityScore is a standardized composite developmental index (0-1000) that quantifies child developmental performance relative to age-normed expectations. Operational data from more than 18.6 million therapy sessions show inter-rater reliability r = 0.91 and ICC = 0.88. However, formal concurrent validity against established reference instruments, controlled test-retest reliability, and minimal clinically important difference (MCID) have not been published. Objective: To determine the concurrent validity of AbilityScore against Vineland-3, CARS-2, Bayley-4, and ABAS-3; to assess the reliability of the 7-day test-retest; and to estimate a preliminary MCID. Methods: Cross-sectional multi-center psychometric validation study with a nested prospective testretest substudy. Component A: n = 300 children aged 7 months to 7 years assessed with AbilityScore and comparator instruments in the same session by blinded raters in 6 Pinnacle Blooms Network centers. Component B: n = 60 subset, reassessed at 7 days. Primary analysis: Pearson correlation (Bonferroniadjusted α = 0.017). Pre-registered SAP on OSF. Discussion: This study addresses the single most important evidence gap for AbilityScore. It will determine whether the instrument meets the accepted thresholds for concurrent validity (r ≥ 0.50) and reliability (ICC ≥ 0.80), allowing the progression from operational evidence to formal psychometric validation. Trial registration: CTRI (to be registered prior to first enrollment). OSF pre-registration of SAP (to be completed prior to data collection).

Part III of the Encyclopedia of Early Learning Sports Development documents the foundational paradigmatic error that explains sixty years of misdirected sports science research. The categorical error identified herein distinguishes between two fundamentally incompatible research questions: the kinesiology question ("When are children ready for sports?") and the sports development question ("How do children learn to become athletes?"). This distinction, formalized through the Golden Rule©/Platinum Rule© methodological framework (Kayden, 2025; conceptual foundation: Kayden, 2013), reveals that American sports science systematically studied the wrong populations, asked the wrong questions, and produced recommendations that elite training now proves were backwards.

The document provides comprehensive international evidence demonstrating that Platinum Rule© approaches—implemented at national scale in Norway, Iceland, the Netherlands, Brazil, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, New Zealand, Finland, and Japan—produce superior elite outcomes while serving dramatically more children. Norway's 93% youth sports participation rate compared to America's 55% represents 19 million additional American children who would participate if developmental approaches replaced selection-based elimination.

Critical findings include: (1) elite performers pay premium fees to recreate conditions that early learners experience naturally, validating what kinesiology dismissed as developmentally inappropriate; (2) junior-to-senior transition research shows 89.2% of U17/18 internationals fail to reach senior level while 82% of senior internationals were not selected at U17/18, demolishing early talent identification assumptions; (3) the $40+ billion American youth sports industry extracts value from families while producing inferior participation and elite outcomes compared to publicly-funded developmental systems.

This analysis establishes the theoretical foundation for field establishment by documenting that the categorical error is structural, not incidental—embedded in departmental silos, funding mechanisms, and publication systems that cannot self-correct. The transformation required is not reform within existing paradigms but replacement of the fundamental questions guiding research and practice.

Word Count: Approximately 19,500 words
Chapters: 7, 8, 9, 10

Keywords
Early Learning Sports Development; Golden Rule©; Platinum Rule©; kinesiology vs. sports development; paradigmatic error; categorical error; youth sports crisis; developmental sports science; constraint-driven learning; elite training validation; international youth sports models; Norwegian youth sports; Children's Rights in Sport; youth sports participation rates; 70% dropout rate; talent identification failure; junior-to-senior transition; early specialization harm; multi-sport sampling; developmental readiness; movement literacy; intrinsic motivation preservation; Developmental Dark Ages; commercialized youth sports; youth sports economics; child development in sports; foundational athletic development; Stages 1-4 development; Natural Order of Sport©; Governing Dynamics of Sport©; sports science reform; practitioner knowledge validation; Answer Engine Optimization; field establishment; academic structural incapacity; Iceland football; Dutch Total Football; Brazilian futsal; German Sportverein; Swedish children's rights; research paradigm transformation; Bradley Kayden; Coach Pickles' Jelly Bean Sports®

Tendencias del gasto público en salud destinado a prestadores privados en Chile (2019-2025) Trends in Public Health Expenditure Allocated to Private Providers in Chile (2019-2025) Camilo Bass del Campo 1 RESUMEN E l aumento del gasto público en salud en Chile se ha presentado como estrategia de fortalecimien-to del sistema; sin embargo, una fracción relevante se canaliza a la compra de servicios privados. Objetivo: Analizar la evolución del gasto público en salud en Chile (2019-2025), con énfasis en la proporción del aumento presupuestario destinada a prestadores privados. Métodos: Estudio observacional descriptivo con series de ejecución presupuestaria de FONASA en pesos constantes (base 2026) y su relación con el PIB; el gasto en prestadores privados se estimó como modalidad de libre elección más compra directa. Resultados: El presupuesto de FONASA aumentó 49% real y el gasto en privados 72%. En años de expansión, el incremento destinado a compras privadas llegó a 63,5% en 2024. La transferencia a privados correspondió a 0,5-0,6% del PIB. Conclusión: La expansión del gasto no fortaleció proporcionalmente la provisión estatal y contribuyó a sostener la oferta privada, reforzando la dependencia del mercado, en un sistema segmentado y con alto gasto de bolsillo. Se recomienda complementar con comparaciones de costos y producción, y reorientar el gasto hacia inversión pública estructural para reducir la subordinación al mercado, ampliar capacidad pública instalada y avanzar en la garantía del derecho a la salud.

Los ácidos grasos poliinsaturados de cadena larga omega-3 de origen marino son esenciales a través de todo el ciclo vital, especialmente el ácido eicosapentaenoico (EPA) y docosahexaenoico (DHA). Un mayor consumo de estos ácidos grasos en el embarazo y lactancia se ha asociado a un mejor desarrollo cognitivo y visual

Between the time this volume was conceptualized and its publication, the world has seen dramatic changes as a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic, changes that have directly impacted international relations and globalization. Because this issue of Human Development deals with insights and alternatives regarding globalization, culture, and development, the consequences of the pandemic are linked to the presentation of four specific articles based on invited addresses given at the 2019 Jean Piaget Society conference on the title topic. Beginning with this article, this volume aims to explore five themes: multiple pathways of development; the importance of understanding context for understanding development; using mixed methods; implications for interventions; and implications for how to engage people in diverse societies, even as those societies are changing.

except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of going to press, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.

The Unbearable Dynamicity of Psychological Processes: Highlights of the Psychodynamic Theories.- Reviving Person-Centered Inquiry in Psychology: Why it's Erstwhile Dormancy?.- How Methodology Became a Toolbox-And How it Escapes from that Box.- The Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology, or: The Disunity of Psychology as a Working Hypothesis.- The Experimental Methodology of Constructive Microgenesis.- The Schema Approach: A Dynamic View on Remembering.- Against Reification! Praxeological Methodology and its Benefits.- Grasping the Dynamic Nature of Intersubjectivity.- Idiographic Data Analysis: Quantitative Methods-From Simple to Advanced.- Depicting the Dynamics of Living the Life: The Trajectory Equifinality Model.- Analysis of Intensive Categorical Longitudinal Data.- Advances in Dynamic Factor Analysis of Psychological Processes.- Hidden Markov Models for Individual Time Series.- Multilevel Simultaneous Component Analysis for Studying Intra-Individual Variability and Inter...

This study investigates the impact of child abuse on national development in Nigeria, focusing on key dimensions such as child labour, school dropouts, and sexual exploitation. Employing the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) estimation technique, the findings reveal that child abuse significantly undermines human capital formation, reduces productivity, and impedes socioeconomic advancement. Conversely, education expenditure and literacy rate exert a positive and significant effect on national development, underscoring the critical role of investment in education and child welfare. The persistence of child abuse reflects deep-rooted structural and governance failures that violate Nigeria's constitutional commitments and international treaties, including the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child. The study recommends a holistic national child protection policy framework aligned with the Child's Rights Act (2003) and international conventions. It further advocates for strengthened educational access, economic empowerment of vulnerable households, and robust legal enforcement mechanisms. Awareness campaigns, inter-ministerial collaboration, and specialized family courts are also essential for effective deterrence and justice delivery. However, eradicating child abuse is both a moral and economic necessity for sustainable national development, as safeguarding children's rights ensures the protection and continuity of Nigeria's human and economic capital.

Character education today faces a dual challenge: nurturing an environmentally conscious generation while providing meaningful learning experiences. In response to the climate crisis and the mandate of SDG 4.7 , educators are reexamining every aspect of classroom learning practices, from the resources they use to the competencies they develop, to simultaneously foster ecological awareness and moral agency. This study examines how digital tools can transform character education projects into sustainable and pedagogically robust practices. We analyzed a cohort of thirty two (N = 32) postgraduate students in Early Childhood Education (ECE) who collaboratively produced a digital morality guidebook. Implementing a paperless workflow reduced material use by 72%, increased immersive learning satisfaction by 84.4%, and strengthened a set of 21st-century competencies. Survey results indicated that 93.8% of participants felt more creative when designing with Canva, and every student reported improved collaboration skills through online coordination. Thematic analysis of reflective journals revealed three cornerstones of innovation: cloud-based design that replaces physical drafts, AI-assisted validation that eliminates the need for field trips, and an e-filing system that simplifies legal documentation. Based on these findings, we formulated the Eco-Digital Character Education (EDCE) framework, which reduces the project's carbon footprint by approximately 40% while increasing moral reasoning competencies by 35%. This framework provides a practical blueprint for educators, particularly in developing countries, who aim to achieve SDG 4.7 through technology-based and environmentally conscious pedagogy.

In a review of the special issue, we conclude that the articles are research gems in the domain of preschool mathematics education. Most share several features, such as their perspective on research methodology and their view of mathematics thinking and learning. They address the cognitive architecture and processes and the developmental levels through which young children pass (the core constituent of research-based learning trajectories). Most of the authors use similar constructs and measures, a sign of a maturing research field. We hope such confluence begins to extend across groups from different disciplines. This could also serve the purpose of widening the research methodologies with those from mathematic education, such as those including theoretically-designed interventions and experimental designs.

We respond to a call to analyze issues of curriculum standards and to present alternative storylines by addressing criticisms of the Common Core State Standards in early childhood. We describe a storyline from multiple media and evaluate this storyline's criticisms, focusing on the criticism that the standards are developmentally inappropriate. We review research and conclude that the criticism is invalid and may reflect a historical belief in the primacy of development over learning rather than the research record. Misinterpreting or ignoring relevant research has equity consequences because it may particularly harm those children most in need of learning support in learning grade-level mathematics. Fortunately, theory and research illuminate learning trajectories that help all children meet these standards.

tion through Grants R305A120813, R305K05157, and R305A110188. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the U.S. Department of Education. Although the research is concerned with theoretical issues, not particular curricula, a small component of the intervention used in this research have been published by the authors and their collaborators on the project, who thus could have a vested interest in the results. Researchers from an independent institution oversaw the research design, data collection, and analysis and confirmed findings and procedures. The authors wish to express appreciation to the school districts, teachers, and students who participated in this research.

tion through Grants R305A120813, R305K05157, and R305A110188. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the U.S. Department of Education. Although the research is concerned with theoretical issues, not particular curricula, a small component of the intervention used in this research have been published by the authors and their collaborators on the project, who thus could have a vested interest in the results. Researchers from an independent institution oversaw the research design, data collection, and analysis and confirmed findings and procedures. The authors wish to express appreciation to the school districts, teachers, and students who participated in this research.

Most developers and publishers claim that their curricula or approach to teaching are based on research, but few explicate their claims. In this chapter, we briefly assess the state of affairs regarding “research-based curricula” and then address weaknesses in the field by presenting a model that is based on coordinated interdisciplinary research ranging from cognitive science to scale-up. We discuss the instantiation of that model with an early childhood mathematics curriculum, showing how a grounding in cognitive science allowed all components of the curriculum, professional development, implementation, and scale-up to benefit from a shared core of learning trajectories. We illustrate each of the phases of the Curriculum Research Framework by focusing on one learning trajectory, for the topic of subitizing. We document the efficacy of this approach and suggest it be tested at other grade levels and on other subjects.

The third edition of this significant and groundbreaking book summarizes current research on how young children learn mathematics and illustrates how best to develop foundational knowledge to realize more effective teaching. Using straightforward, practical language, early math experts Douglas Clements and Julie Sarama show how learning trajectories help teachers understand children's level of mathematical understanding and lead to better teaching. By focusing on the inherent delight and curiosity behind young children's mathematical reasoning, learning trajectories ultimately make teaching more joyous: helping teachers understand the varying levels of knowledge exhibited by individual students allows them to better meet the learning needs of all children. This thoroughly revised and contemporary third edition of Learning and Teaching Early Math remains the definitive, research-based resource to help teachers understand the learning trajectories of early mathematics and become confident, credible professionals. The new edition draws on numerous new research studies, offers expanded international examples, and includes updated illustrations throughout. This new edition is closely linked with Learning and Teaching with Learning Trajectories-[LT] 2 -an open-access, web-based tool for early childhood educators to learn about how children think and learn about mathematics. Head to LearningTrajectories.org for ongoing updates, interactive games, and practical tools that support classroom learning.

The authors explore how children's play can support the development of the foundations of mathematics learning and how adults can support children's representation of-and thus the mathematization of-their play. The authors review research about the amount and nature of mathematics found in the free play of children. They briefly discuss how children develop different types of play and describe ways adults can support and guide each of these to encourage an understanding of mathematics and to enhance children's mathematical skills. The authors' activities described in this article and the time to prepare it were partially funded by grants from the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) in the U.S. Department of Education and from the National Science Foundation (NSF).

The third edition of this significant and groundbreaking book summarizes current research on how young children learn mathematics and illustrates how best to develop foundational knowledge to realize more effective teaching. Using straightforward, practical language, early math experts Douglas Clements and Julie Sarama show how learning trajectories help teachers understand children's level of mathematical understanding and lead to better teaching. By focusing on the inherent delight and curiosity behind young children's mathematical reasoning, learning trajectories ultimately make teaching more joyous: helping teachers understand the varying levels of knowledge exhibited by individual students allows them to better meet the learning needs of all children. This thoroughly revised and contemporary third edition of Learning and Teaching Early Math remains the definitive, research-based resource to help teachers understand the learning trajectories of early mathematics and become confident, credible professionals. The new edition draws on numerous new research studies, offers expanded international examples, and includes updated illustrations throughout. This new edition is closely linked with Learning and Teaching with Learning Trajectories-[LT] 2 -an open-access, web-based tool for early childhood educators to learn about how children think and learn about mathematics. Head to LearningTrajectories.org for ongoing updates, interactive games, and practical tools that support classroom learning.

In a review of the special issue, we conclude that the articles are research gems in the domain of preschool mathematics education. Most share several features, such as their perspective on research methodology and their view of mathematics thinking and learning. They address the cognitive architecture and processes and the developmental levels through which young children pass (the core constituent of research-based learning trajectories). Most of the authors use similar constructs and measures, a sign of a maturing research field. We hope such confluence begins to extend across groups from different disciplines. This could also serve the purpose of widening the research methodologies with those from mathematic education, such as those including theoretically-designed interventions and experimental designs.

The third edition of this significant and groundbreaking book summarizes current research on how young children learn mathematics and illustrates how best to develop foundational knowledge to realize more effective teaching. Using straightforward, practical language, early math experts Douglas Clements and Julie Sarama show how learning trajectories help teachers understand children's level of mathematical understanding and lead to better teaching. By focusing on the inherent delight and curiosity behind young children's mathematical reasoning, learning trajectories ultimately make teaching more joyous: helping teachers understand the varying levels of knowledge exhibited by individual students allows them to better meet the learning needs of all children. This thoroughly revised and contemporary third edition of Learning and Teaching Early Math remains the definitive, research-based resource to help teachers understand the learning trajectories of early mathematics and become confident, credible professionals. The new edition draws on numerous new research studies, offers expanded international examples, and includes updated illustrations throughout. This new edition is closely linked with Learning and Teaching with Learning Trajectories-[LT] 2 -an open-access, web-based tool for early childhood educators to learn about how children think and learn about mathematics. Head to LearningTrajectories.org for ongoing updates, interactive games, and practical tools that support classroom learning.

The authors explore how children's play can support the development of the foundations of mathematics learning and how adults can support children's representation of-and thus the mathematization of-their play. The authors review research about the amount and nature of mathematics found in the free play of children. They briefly discuss how children develop different types of play and describe ways adults can support and guide each of these to encourage an understanding of mathematics and to enhance children's mathematical skills. The authors' activities described in this article and the time to prepare it were partially funded by grants from the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) in the U.S. Department of Education and from the National Science Foundation (NSF).

We respond to a call to analyze issues of curriculum standards and to present alternative storylines by addressing criticisms of the Common Core State Standards in early childhood. We describe a storyline from multiple media and evaluate this storyline's criticisms, focusing on the criticism that the standards are developmentally inappropriate. We review research and conclude that the criticism is invalid and may reflect a historical belief in the primacy of development over learning rather than the research record. Misinterpreting or ignoring relevant research has equity consequences because it may particularly harm those children most in need of learning support in learning grade-level mathematics. Fortunately, theory and research illuminate learning trajectories that help all children meet these standards.