ENVIRONMENTAL AND ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

The studied were carried out for the comparative evaluation of physiochemical and GCMS analysis of sour and sweet oranges peel oil of Pakistan. The physiochemical analysis of sour oranges were shown that moisture (%), density, iodine value (g/100g), saponification value (mg/g), peroxide value (mg eq/kg), free fatty acid value (%) 0.34 ±0.22, 0.92 ± 0.16, 100 ± 0.44 , 171 ± 0.32 , 35.2 ± 0.12 and 5.8 ± 0.31 respectively, while similarly the sweet oranges peels physiochemical analysis value were 0.42 ± 0.15 moisture (%), 0.94 ± 0.13 density, 103 ± 0.54 iodine value (g/100g), saponification value (mg/g), peroxide value (mg eq/kg) and free fatty acid value (%) were 183 ± 0.11 , 13.5 ± 0.17 and 2.3 ± 0.16 respectively. GC-MS analysis of sour orange and sweet orange peels oil were also calculated. The results of the present study demonstrated that the seeds of citrus species investigated are a potential source of valuable oil which might be utilized for edible and other industrial applica...

The anti- microbial activity tests of the seed oil, NaOH and ash soaps of the seed oil, of C.albidum were carried out to determine their effectiveness against gram+, gram– bacteria and some fungi strains. The proximate analysis of C.albidum seeds was performed to determine its nutritional benefits to mankind. Agar diffusion tests using Disc diffusion for the pure oils and soaps while the cup plate test method for dilutions was used in the determination of in-vitro activities. Standard methods as described by AOAC, (1990); AOAC, (1984) and Kjeldahl method described by Chang (2003) were used for proximate determinations. The results show the activity of the oil against Klebsiella pneumonia at a concentration as low as 10 mg/ml. The ash-soap of the leaves shows the highest antimicrobial activities because its MIC is the closest to the standard, Streptomycin. It possesses activity against Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumonia at a concentration as low as 5mg/ml. The % proximate anal...

The aim of this study was to extract oil from sweet orange seeds and determine potential applications by investigating the physicochemical parameters of the oil. The seeds of Citrus sinesis were collected, washed and prepared for uses such as decocting, drying and pulverizing. The seed oil was extracted using soxhlet apparatus with diethyl ether and petroleum spirit as solvents. The extract was centrifuged to remove particulates and the percentage yield of oil extraction with diethyl ether was (56.3%) and (56.0%) with petroleum spirit. Physicochemical analysis of the seed oil was conducted using standard procedures and the following results were obtained; relative density (0.88 12g/cm3), moisture content (4.0%), refractive index at 25oC (1.457), ash content (5.0%), organic matter (95.0%), iodine value (54.19 g/100g), saponification value (190.32mgKOH/g) and peroxide value (5.8meq/kg). The use of Citrus sinesis seed oil in chemical industries for the production of soap, perfumes, can...

Soap is a salt of fatty acid obtained by treating vegetable oils or animal fats with alkali. In current scenario herbal soap has generated considerable interest and enthusiasm amongst consumers due to ecofriendly nature of the product. The research work de from Curcuma longa and Embeliaribes these phytoconstituents incorporated to properties like appearance, pH test, total fatty matter test, etc. The antimicrobial efficacy of the formulated soaps was checked by agar well diffusion method by using two bacterial strains strain Candida albicans and thumb impression method. The result of studies showed that better activity than Embeline soap.

The objective of this work was to determine the metal content of plantain and banana peels ash derived alkali and the possibility of using it as alternate and cheap source of alkali in soap industry. This was done by ashing the peels and dissolving it in de-ionised water to achieve the corresponding hydroxides with pH above 12. The solution was then analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS). The analytical measurements were carried out in triplicate and the multi elemental solution was used for calibration of equipment. The abundance of essential metals was in these orders in both the banana and plantain alkalis: K > Fe > Ca > Mg > Mn > Zn > Na and Fe > K > Ca > Mg > Zn > Mn > Na, respectively. The presence of other metals besides K and Na at higher concentrations limits the foamability of the soaps but could be adapted as thickeners and emulsifiers in greases. The concentrations of elements with health risk in the ash derived alkalis are within the allowable range of the Commission of European Communities (2008) limit.

Citrus sinensis seed and peel oils were extracted by solvent extraction using n-hexane, after air drying and grinding. Soaps were formed by saponification methods. Fatty acid composition of the oil samples were analyzed using Gas Chromatograph-Flame Ionization Detector (GC-FID). Physicochemical properties of the oils and soaps were determined following standard methods. Antimicrobial activities were assessed by the agar disc and hole-in plate methods. The seed and peel oil yield were 38 and 30%, respectively and the colors were golden yellow and brownish-yellow, respectively. Physicochemical properties of the oil samples determined were: refractive index (RI): 1.46 and 1.47, smoke point: 140 and 149, flash point: 150 and 160, pH: 5.2 and 4.2, acid value (AV): 23.6 and 25.1 mgKOH/g, free fatty acid (FFA): 11.86% as oleic acid and 12.61% as oleic acid, iodine value (IV): 78.83I 2 g/100 g and 120.10I 2 g/100 g, peroxide value (PV): 18.00 mgKOH/g and 5.40 mgKOH/g, saponification value (SV): 222.58 and 41.25 mgKOH/g, ester value (EV): 178.24 and 28.96 mgKOH/g for the seed and the peel oil respectively. Inhibitory antimicrobial activities were assessed for the two oils and the soap produced at concentrations of 40 mg/ml and below, against most of the gram positive and gram negative bacteria as well as the two candida strains, screened as compared with streptomycin (1 mg/L) and acriflavin (6.3 mg/ml) standard controls. Seed oil demonstrated better activities than the peel oil with growth inhibitions obtained against Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans at a concentration as low as 2.5 mg/ml. This study has shown that the results obtained for the physicochemical and antimicrobial properties of the oils provide a synergy for the oil samples as suitable raw materials for the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries.

The physicochemical properties, fatty acids profile, antimicrobial activity and soap potential of the seed oil of Prosopis africana were examined. The prepared natural antiseptic soap was absolutely devoid of all forms of synthetics such as alkaline, antimicrobial agents, preservatives, colourants and fragrances. The seed had an oil yield of 4.98% while the saponification, acid, free fatty-acids and iodine values were found to be 11.60 ± 0.54 mgKOH/g, 16.96 ± 0.57 mgKOH/g, 14.60 ± 0.45% oleic and 145.47 ± 0.66 I2 100 g-1 of the oil respectively. The GC-MS result of the prepared fatty acid methyl ester (FAMEs) indicated the presence of oleic acid (33.67%), a monounsaturated fatty acid as the most prominent fatty acid in the oil, followed linoleic acid (18:2), a polyunsaturated acid making up 31.92% of the oil. Palmitic acid (24.96%) is the most abundant saturated fatty acid while stearic acid and valeric acid makes up (7.3%) and (1.96%) respectively. The antimicrobial activity of the oil tested against ten strains of organisms which include: Streptococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Candida albicans, Penicillium notatum, Rhijoptius stoloniter and Aspergillus niger showed good activity. The Minimum Inhibition Concentration (MIC) values obtained for the oils ranges from 31.25 to 125 mg/mL against all the test organisms and within the range 0.125-0.5 mg/mL for the prepared soap. The physicochemical analysis of the P. africana soap was comparable to commercial antiseptic soaps. The result indicated that quality renewable natural antiseptic soaps ccould be obtained from P. africana seed oil. The result confirms that soaps made from natural lye (alkaline solution) has the capacity to replace existing commercial antiseptic soaps made of synthetic sodium or potassium hydroxides, antimicrobial agents, artificial preservatives and colourants which partly accounts for environmental pollution, increase in antimicrobial resistance and endocrine disruption. The adoption of this green antiseptic soap synthesis technique utilising underexplored P. africana seed oil can help mitigate the negative environmental impact of non-biodegradable synthetic reagents.

This study aims to evaluate the standard physicochemical parameters, such as iodine value, acid value, saponification value, ester value, refractive index, peroxide value, and viscosity, of Prinsepia utilis (P. utilis) seed oil (PUSO) obtained as hexane extract from seeds, and to formulate ketoconazole soap (2% w/w) by using extracted oil as a base. The quality control standards of the final ketoconazole soap complied with the standards specified in Indian Pharmacopeia. Pharmaceutical soap was obtained by treating PUSO with potassium hydroxide (KOH), undergoing basic saponification. All physicochemical parameters, such as acid value (21.78 mg KOH/g), saponification value (194.13 mg KOH/g), iodine value (99.7 g I2/100 g), ester value (172.35 mg KOH/g), refractive index (1.464), and viscosity (192 centipoises [cps]), conformed to industrial standards, except the peroxide value (19.23 milliequivalent KOH/g). Besides, evaluation of quality control parameters of pharmaceutical soap sugge...

There are growing concerns about the chronic and acute effects of synthetic additives such as antibacterial, fragrances, colourants and stabilizing agents used in the production of various household products. Many household products and materials including cosmetic products are reportedly suspected to be carcinogenic with some acting as endocrine disruptors among other effects. Thus, environmental-friendly alternatives such as products that are rich in bioactive phytochemicals are becoming consumers' preferred choice especially in the beauty and cosmetic sector. 'Green' preparation of medicinal soaps devoid of any synthetic additives was made from underutilized tropical seed of Citrus sinensis seed oil and some natural additives comprising of natural honey, Ocimum gratissimum leaves extract, Moringa oleifera seed oil and coconut oil. Precisely, the seed oil of the underexplored C. sinensis was obtained via soxhlet extraction and saponified with natural lye solution at different ratios to produce soaps of varying characteristics. The incorporation of honey and Ocimum gratissimum leaf extract provided additional antimicrobial, antioxidant and fragrance properties. Physico-chemical parameters of the oil and soaps were determined following standard procedures while the fatty acid profile of the trans-esterified oil was determined using GC-MS. The antimicrobial potential of the oil and soaps were assessed using agar diffusion method at concentrations 200 mg/mL and below. Linoleic acid (36%) and oleic acid (27%) were the most prominent in C. sinensis seed oil. The soap had antimicrobial potential comparable to commercial product. The soap samples recorded highest anti-bacteria activities (22.0 AE 1.0-23.0 AE 1.0) against Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis and notable anti-fungi activities (18.0 AE 1.0) against Penicillium notatum and Candida albicans. Additionally, the oil showed moderate anti-parasite (anit-toxoplasma gondii) activity (EC 50 500 μg/mL) but with improved selectivity that precludes oxidative stress while the prepared medicinal soaps exhibited remarkable antioxidant property. The utilization of these locally sourced resources will prevent the daily introduction of synthetic antimicrobial and antioxidant chemicals into the environment. The initiative avail a sustainable production of environmentally-benign cosmetic products besides conversion of waste to wealth agrees which aligns with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Orange peels and fruit debris were employed in this study to improve the soap's quality. Improvements in the soap's solubility time, moisture content, and foaming capacity have all been noted. In this investigation, only non-edible fruit portions were utilized. It demonstrates that the goal of this research is to not only increase soap quality but also to better utilize waste in order to recover more fruit waste. In this investigation of the dried seeds and orange peels were crushed. The study's findings have considerable potential for generating ideas for environmental direction as well as for the care of individual humans. Currently, more than 12,000 tons of trash are produced daily.

The study was aimed to explore the antioxidant potential and total phenolic content ofapple and banana peel powder extract in cooking oil. Objective: (1) To extract and estimate the antioxidant potential of fruit peel. (2) To study the effect of fruit peel on quality of cooking mustard oil. Methods: The fruit powders were incorporated at 4,6,8 and 10% level in mustard oil and its effects on various physico-chemical parameters of oil were evaluated against control. Result: Higher amount of total phenolic content was found in apple peel powder (13.33±1.24mg GAE/g) and DPPHscavenging activity (95.13±2.03%), whereas the FRAP antioxidant capacity value and Vitamin C were higher in banana peel powder. Incorporation of fruit powder significantly (p<0.05) increased the oil parameters like density, iodine value, peroxide value and free fatty acid level, whereas no significant effect was observed for refractive index and specific gravity. When compared to the control oil, batch addition of fruit peel powders had a significant (p<0.05) reduction on both the peroxide value and free fatty acid level. Hence fruit peel powders can be potentially used as natural preservatives and their functionality can be explored in cooking oil quality.

Due to rapid growth of the food processing industry and the consumption of processed foods, the demand for natural antimicrobial agents is on the rise. Cons aware about the health effects of the synthetic preservatives used in food. Hence natural preservatives are developed to meet the demand of consumers. These natural antimicrobials are developed either from plants or their parts, anim waste generated from the food industries is being considered as an alternative to produce natural antimicrobials. The aim of the present study was to utilize the waste generated from the citrus fruit processing (peel) i of Citrus sinensis in food (Oil of olive and cream dessert can be used as antimicrobial and

Seeds of sweet oranges (Citrus sinensis) were analyzed for oil and fatty acid composition. The crude oil was extracted by the use of soxhlet extraction. The results showed that oil content is as high as 71 %. The physico-chemical assessment gave the following results: refractive index (1.457), peroxide value (4.12 meq/kg) and iodine value (34.06 Wijs). The ATR-IR spectrum of oil showed prominent bands at 3008.6, 2921.73, 2852.7, 1742.86, 1709.23, 1460, 1167.66, 1117.39 and 1051.16 cm-1 that identified fatty acid composition. The percentage compositions of various classes of fatty acids present in the oil were polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs, 39.82 %), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs, 57.08 %) and saturated fatty acids (SFAs, 3.09 %). The oil has linoleic acid (18:2, n-6) as the only PUFA and the second highest fatty acid composition (25.63 %). Palmitoleic acid is the highest MUFA (56.30 %) as well as the highest fatty acid composition while capric acid (C10:0) is the lowest fa...

This research involved investigation of the extraction yield and antioxidant property of orange peel on lipid oxidation. Orange peel was oven dried, grinded to powder and extraction procedure carried out using methanol as solvent in a soxhlet extractor. The effects of time and temperature on the extraction process were considered and results obtained showed an optimum extraction temperature and time of 50oC and 120 minutes respectively. X-ray fluorescence analysis of the orange peel extract showed that potassium and calcium are the major elements by percentage composition of 55.5 and 32.65 respectively. In studying the effects of orange peel extract on the melon oil sample, peroxide, free fatty acid and pH analysis were carried out for a period of 60 day. The results obtained confirmed the ability of orange peel extract as antioxidant agent.

The studied were carried out for the comparative evaluation of physiochemical and GCMS analysis of sour and sweet oranges peel oil of Pakistan. The physiochemical analysis of sour oranges were shown that moisture (%), density, iodine value (g/100g), saponification value (mg/g), peroxide value (mg eq/kg), free fatty acid value (%) 0.34 ±0.22, 0.92 ± 0.16, 100 ± 0.44 , 171 ± 0.32 , 35.2 ± 0.12 and 5.8 ± 0.31 respectively, while similarly the sweet oranges peels physiochemical analysis value were 0.42 ± 0.15 moisture (%), 0.94 ± 0.13 density, 103 ± 0.54 iodine value (g/100g), saponification value (mg/g), peroxide value (mg eq/kg) and free fatty acid value (%) were 183 ± 0.11 , 13.5 ± 0.17 and 2.3 ± 0.16 respectively. GC-MS analysis of sour orange and sweet orange peels oil were also calculated. The results of the present study demonstrated that the seeds of citrus species investigated are a potential source of valuable oil which might be utilized for edible and other industrial applica...

The anti- microbial activity tests of the seed oil, NaOH and ash soaps of the seed oil, of C.albidum were carried out to determine their effectiveness against gram+, gram– bacteria and some fungi strains. The proximate analysis of C.albidum seeds was performed to determine its nutritional benefits to mankind. Agar diffusion tests using Disc diffusion for the pure oils and soaps while the cup plate test method for dilutions was used in the determination of in-vitro activities. Standard methods as described by AOAC, (1990); AOAC, (1984) and Kjeldahl method described by Chang (2003) were used for proximate determinations. The results show the activity of the oil against Klebsiella pneumonia at a concentration as low as 10 mg/ml. The ash-soap of the leaves shows the highest antimicrobial activities because its MIC is the closest to the standard, Streptomycin. It possesses activity against Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumonia at a concentration as low as 5mg/ml. The % proximate anal...

Aim: This study evaluated the proximate composition and antibacterial activity of the Citrus sinensis (sweet orange) fruit waste (peels and seeds). Study Design: The peels and seeds from Linnaeus Osbeck variety of Citrus sinensis (sweet orange) fruits purchased from Eke-Okigwe market in Imo State, Nigeria were respectively investigated for proximate composition and antibacterial activity.

This study aims to evaluate the standard physicochemical parameters, such as iodine value, acid value, saponification value, ester value, refractive index, peroxide value, and viscosity, of Prinsepia utilis (P. utilis) seed oil (PUSO) obtained as hexane extract from seeds, and to formulate ketoconazole soap (2% w/w) by using extracted oil as a base. The quality control standards of the final ketoconazole soap complied with the standards specified in Indian Pharmacopeia. Pharmaceutical soap was obtained by treating PUSO with potassium hydroxide (KOH), undergoing basic saponification. All physicochemical parameters, such as acid value (21.78 mg KOH/g), saponification value (194.13 mg KOH/g), iodine value (99.7 g I2/100 g), ester value (172.35 mg KOH/g), refractive index (1.464), and viscosity (192 centipoises [cps]), conformed to industrial standards, except the peroxide value (19.23 milliequivalent KOH/g). Besides, evaluation of quality control parameters of pharmaceutical soap sugge...

The studied were carried out for the comparative evaluation of physiochemical and GCMS analysis of sour and sweet oranges peel oil of Pakistan. The physiochemical analysis of sour oranges were shown that moisture (%), density, iodine value (g/100g), saponification value (mg/g), peroxide value (mg eq/kg), free fatty acid value (%) 0.34 ±0.22, 0.92 ± 0.16, 100 ± 0.44 , 171 ± 0.32 , 35.2 ± 0.12 and 5.8 ± 0.31 respectively, while similarly the sweet oranges peels physiochemical analysis value were 0.42 ± 0.15 moisture (%), 0.94 ± 0.13 density, 103 ± 0.54 iodine value (g/100g), saponification value (mg/g), peroxide value (mg eq/kg) and free fatty acid value (%) were 183 ± 0.11 , 13.5 ± 0.17 and 2.3 ± 0.16 respectively. GC-MS analysis of sour orange and sweet orange peels oil were also calculated. The results of the present study demonstrated that the seeds of citrus species investigated are a potential source of valuable oil which might be utilized for edible and other industrial applica...

The studied were carried out for the comparative evaluation of physiochemical and GCMS analysis of sour and sweet oranges peel oil of Pakistan. The physiochemical analysis of sour oranges were shown that moisture (%), density, iodine value (g/100g), saponification value (mg/g), peroxide value (mg eq/kg), free fatty acid value (%) 0.34 ±0.22, 0.92 ± 0.16, 100 ± 0.44 , 171 ± 0.32 , 35.2 ± 0.12 and 5.8 ± 0.31 respectively, while similarly the sweet oranges peels physiochemical analysis value were 0.42 ± 0.15 moisture (%), 0.94 ± 0.13 density, 103 ± 0.54 iodine value (g/100g), saponification value (mg/g), peroxide value (mg eq/kg) and free fatty acid value (%) were 183 ± 0.11 , 13.5 ± 0.17 and 2.3 ± 0.16 respectively. GC-MS analysis of sour orange and sweet orange peels oil were also calculated. The results of the present study demonstrated that the seeds of citrus species investigated are a potential source of valuable oil which might be utilized for edible and other industrial applica...

The anti- microbial activity tests of the seed oil, NaOH and ash soaps of the seed oil, of C.albidum were carried out to determine their effectiveness against gram+, gram– bacteria and some fungi strains. The proximate analysis of C.albidum seeds was performed to determine its nutritional benefits to mankind. Agar diffusion tests using Disc diffusion for the pure oils and soaps while the cup plate test method for dilutions was used in the determination of in-vitro activities. Standard methods as described by AOAC, (1990); AOAC, (1984) and Kjeldahl method described by Chang (2003) were used for proximate determinations. The results show the activity of the oil against Klebsiella pneumonia at a concentration as low as 10 mg/ml. The ash-soap of the leaves shows the highest antimicrobial activities because its MIC is the closest to the standard, Streptomycin. It possesses activity against Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumonia at a concentration as low as 5mg/ml. The % proximate anal...

The studied were carried out for the comparative evaluation of physiochemical and GCMS analysis of sour and sweet oranges peel oil of Pakistan. The physiochemical analysis of sour oranges were shown that moisture (%), density, iodine value (g/100g), saponification value (mg/g), peroxide value (mg eq/kg), free fatty acid value (%) 0.34 ±0.22, 0.92 ± 0.16, 100 ± 0.44 , 171 ± 0.32 , 35.2 ± 0.12 and 5.8 ± 0.31 respectively, while similarly the sweet oranges peels physiochemical analysis value were 0.42 ± 0.15 moisture (%), 0.94 ± 0.13 density, 103 ± 0.54 iodine value (g/100g), saponification value (mg/g), peroxide value (mg eq/kg) and free fatty acid value (%) were 183 ± 0.11 , 13.5 ± 0.17 and 2.3 ± 0.16 respectively. GC-MS analysis of sour orange and sweet orange peels oil were also calculated. The results of the present study demonstrated that the seeds of citrus species investigated are a potential source of valuable oil which might be utilized for edible and other industrial applica...

This research involved investigation of the extraction yield and antioxidant property of orange peel on lipid oxidation. Orange peel was oven dried, grinded to powder and extraction procedure carried out using methanol as solvent in a soxhlet extractor. The effects of time and temperature on the extraction process were considered and results obtained showed an optimum extraction temperature and time of 50ºC and 120 minutes respectively. X-ray fluorescence analysis of the orange peel extract showed that potassium and calcium are the major elements by percentage composition of 55.5 and 32.65 respectively. In studying the effects of orange peel extract on the melon oil sample, peroxide, free fatty acid and pH analysis were carried out for a period of 60 day. The results obtained confirmed the ability of orange peel extract as antioxidant agent.

The present study was performed for the period of one year from January 2013 to December 2013 in order to understand the level of toxic heavy metals in the sediments of Mahul Creek near Mumbai. The annual average concentration of heavy metals like Cr, Zn, Cu, Ni, Pb, Cd, As and Hg was found to be 277.5, 121.7, 100.3, 63.8, 21.5, 14.6, 10.4 and 4.9 ppm respectively. It is feared that this heavy metals accumulated in the creek sediments may enter the water thereby creating threat to the biological life of an aquatic ecosystem. The results of present study indicates that the existing situation if mishandled can cause irreparable ecological harm in the long term well masked by short term economic prosperity due to extensive industrial growth

Fruits are the main fruit trees grown throughout the world and are well–appreciated for their refreshing juice and health benefits. This study of Citrus paradisi (peels) of hexane, acetone and methanol extracts was carried out to show phytochemical screening and antibacterial activity. Plants and plant products are continuously being explored in medicine against the increasing number of antibiotic resistant organisms. The antibacterial activity of plant under study has been done by suing agar well diffusion method against bacteria. Phytochemical analysis showed the presence of terpenoids , alkaloids , flavoniods , tannins , reducing sugars and glycosides. Citrus paradisi extracts at a concentration of 100 mg/ml was determined by agar well diffusion method against pathogenic microorganisms; (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococus aureus). The crude extract of Citrus paradisi was very active against Bacillus subtilis strains (IZ = 25 mm zone of ...

This study investigated the potential of producing quality soaps from beeswax with a view to widening its applications and providing alternative to the high demanding fats and oils. Its potassium and sodium soaps were prepared by hot method and their properties examined. The FTIR spectroscopy indicated carboxylate band at 1560.46 cm−1 for both soaps, which is, however, absent in the original beeswax, showing that metal ions associated with the COO− ions in monodendate structures. The soaps have good qualities with respect to pH, foam ability, longevity, hardness, free alkali and total fatty matter, with the potassium soap having higher qualities. The foam ability and stability of the potassium soap were comparable to those of some commercial toilet and laundry soaps. The sodium soap, however, has better lubricating properties due to its unstable foam and low water solubility. Both prepared soaps showed lower antibacterial activity than tested antiseptic soaps but displayed almost th...

Aims: Physico-chemical, Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) and Cold saponification was carried out on Lannea microcarpa (Wild grape) seed oil with the aim of identifying the quality and quantity of the oil and its suitability in soap production. Study Design: Experimental and instrumental study was done to determine the physicochemical characteristics, fatty acids present in the seed oil and its suitability for soap production. Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted at the Biochemistry Laboratory, Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aliero, Nigeria from May to June, 2014. Methodology: The hexane extract of the sample was obtained by complete extraction using Soxhlet extractor, physicochemical analysis was carried out. A gas chromatography coupled with mass spectroscopy detector (GC-MS) system was used for the qualitative fatty acid determination. Simple cold method saponification was used in producing the soap. Results: The powdered seed (50 g) ...

To meet the increasing demands for oil, improvements are being made to produce unique and desirable oils, therefore increasing interest in newer sources of edible oils from natural sources. The physicochemical properties and fatty acid composition of Averrohoa carambola seed oil were determined. Physicochemical properties were determined using standard techniques and the fatty acid profile was obtained using Gas Chromatography Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS). Soxhlet extraction (using petroleum ether) of the oil from sundried and crushed seeds of Averrohoa carambola gave light yellow oil with a yield of 28.45% oil per 100 g of the seeds. Other physicochemical properties of the oil determined were as follows; moisture content (7.2%), specific gravity (0.705), refractive index (1.421), acid value (0.68), free fatty acid (0.84), iodine value (140.50 g I 2 100 g-1), saponification value (190.0 mg KOH g-1) and peroxide value (16.0 mEq kg-1). The fatty acid profiles were revealed using Gas Chromatography Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS). Linoleic (36.01%) and oleic (34.05%) were detected as the major fatty acid while palmitic (6.75%) and stearic acid (3.09%) were the saturated acid found in the oil. The compositions of the saturated fatty acids (SAFAs), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) were found to be 10.43, 34.44 and 51.98% respectively. Hence, the oil has a relatively high percentage of unsaturated fatty acid (86.42%). The outcome of this study showed that Averrohoa carambola seed oil may find wider industrial application and could be a nutriceutical resource or functional foods ingredient. Hence, the oil may be edible subject to toxicological test.

The objective of the present study is to examine the physico-chemical properties of Indigofera zollingeriana seed oil. Physico-chemical parameters of oils are important in the determination of edibility and other industrial applications. All the laboratory analysis were carried out using standard procedures according to AOAC (2000). The acid value, peroxide value, iodine value, saponfication value, refractive index and free fatty acids of cold pressed Indigofera zollingeriana seed oil was found to be 17.11 mg NaOH/g, 23.04 meq/kg, 180.4 gI2/100g, 118.7 mg/KOH/g and 14.10 %. The refractive index (20 o C) and specific gravity (25 o C) was 2.01 and 1.02 respectively. The extracted oil was Indigo in colour at liquid state. It was concluded the oil has a high acid value, peroxide value and free fatty acid which favours the use of the oil for industrial use such as soap production and cosmetics.

According to World Health Organization (WHO), medicinal plants are defined as any herbal preparations made by incorporating plant materials to its extraction, fractionation, purification, concentration, or any biological, physical processes which

To meet the increasing demands for oil, improvements are being made to produce unique and desirable oils, therefore increasing interest in newer sources of edible oils from natural sources. The physicochemical properties and fatty acid composition of Averrohoa carambola seed oil were determined. Physicochemical properties were determined using standard techniques and the fatty acid profile was obtained using Gas Chromatography Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS). Soxhlet extraction (using petroleum ether) of the oil from sundried and crushed seeds of Averrohoa carambola gave light yellow oil with a yield of 28.45% oil per 100 g of the seeds. Other physicochemical properties of the oil determined were as follows; moisture content (7.2%), specific gravity (0.705), refractive index (1.421), acid value (0.68), free fatty acid (0.84), iodine value (140.50 g I 2 100 g-1), saponification value (190.0 mg KOH g-1) and peroxide value (16.0 mEq kg-1). The fatty acid profiles were revealed using Gas Chromatography Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS). Linoleic (36.01%) and oleic (34.05%) were detected as the major fatty acid while palmitic (6.75%) and stearic acid (3.09%) were the saturated acid found in the oil. The compositions of the saturated fatty acids (SAFAs), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) were found to be 10.43, 34.44 and 51.98% respectively. Hence, the oil has a relatively high percentage of unsaturated fatty acid (86.42%). The outcome of this study showed that Averrohoa carambola seed oil may find wider industrial application and could be a nutriceutical resource or functional foods ingredient. Hence, the oil may be edible subject to toxicological test.

Soap is a cleaning compound formed from the reaction between fatty acid compounds and alkaline bases. Various types of soap have been circulating in the market, one of which is liquid soap. Liquid soap that has antibacterial abilities is needed by many people. Moringa seed extract is one of the natural ingredients that can be used as an active ingredient in making liquid soap because it can inhibit bacterial growth. This study aims to determine the effect of variations in the addition of extracts and to obtain the best extract concentration treatment on physical, chemical, and organoleptic. The addition of moringa seed extract used was administered at 3%, 5%, and 7%. Data analysis was carried out by applying the ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) with a significant level of 5%. The De Garmo method was used to formulate the best liquid soap recommendation among various treatments. The results showed that the addition of moringa seed extract had a significant effect on the parameters of free alkali content, viscosity, specific gravity, antibacterial activity, and organoleptic. The best recommendation for liquid soap is a soap with a concentration of 7% with specific gravity characteristics of 1.066 g/ml, the viscosity of 1.983 cP, pH value of 10.53, foaming power of 5.63 cm, foam stability of 94.64%, and free alkali content of 0.023%, and the antibacterial ability against S. aureus bacteria (clear zone) was 19.17 mm.

The studied were carried out for the comparative evaluation of physiochemical and GCMS analysis of sour and sweet oranges peel oil of Pakistan. The physiochemical analysis of sour oranges were shown that moisture (%), density, iodine value (g/100g), saponification value (mg/g), peroxide value (mg eq/kg), free fatty acid value (%) 0.34 ±0.22, 0.92 ± 0.16, 100 ± 0.44 , 171 ± 0.32 , 35.2 ± 0.12 and 5.8 ± 0.31 respectively, while similarly the sweet oranges peels physiochemical analysis value were 0.42 ± 0.15 moisture (%), 0.94 ± 0.13 density, 103 ± 0.54 iodine value (g/100g), saponification value (mg/g), peroxide value (mg eq/kg) and free fatty acid value (%) were 183 ± 0.11 , 13.5 ± 0.17 and 2.3 ± 0.16 respectively. GC-MS analysis of sour orange and sweet orange peels oil were also calculated. The results of the present study demonstrated that the seeds of citrus species investigated are a potential source of valuable oil which might be utilized for edible and other industrial applica...

Ramadan, K., Nader, S., & Ibrahim, A. (2018). Evaluation of sequential extraction of some biological materials from orange fruits peel (Citrus sinensis). Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, 24(6), 1129–1136 The possibility of sequential extraction and determination of some biological material from orange fruits peel (Valencia variety which is obtained from two areas S and G) has been verifi ed. Sequential extraction of essential oil, phenols, fi xed oil, pigments, proteins consequently, and the impact of each stage of extraction stages on properties of the extracted materials in the other stages has been measured. The chemical composition of Essential oil has been identifi ed by GC-MS. α-Limonene, β-Linalool, and β-Myrcene, major compounds are presence in the two regions oil. When sequential extrication was used the yield of water extract increased nearly 27% and the total phenolic compound increased higher than 5%, also yield of fi xed oil raised by 8-38%, аcid value and pig...

The effects of frying unripe plantain and sweet potato (separately) in soyabean oil on the properties of the oil were investigated. Also, the effect of the degradation of the oil on biodiesel yield obtained from the oil was considered. Physico-chemical properties of soyabean oil (acid value, saponification value, viscosity, density, colour) were measured daily after being used for frying for days. The fatty acid profile of the oil was analysed daily using GC/MS and biodiesel was produced daily from the oil sample. The results of the frying process showed increase in oil Acid values in the two cases; sweet potato (1.10-1.16mgKOH/g) and unripe plantain (1.12-1.71mgKOH/g). And increase in oil saponification values (146-271mgKOH/g for sweet potato and 175-340mgKOH/g for unripe plantain). The oil became less dense, less viscous and darker in colour for both batches during repeated frying. Five day Frying process reduced the percentage unsaturated fatty acid contents of oil (for unripe plantain from 81.94% to 36.80% and for sweet potato from 82.46% to 40.10%) and increased the percentage saturated fatty acid composition of the oil (unripe plantain from 12.18% to 34.70% and sweet potato from 12.24% to 27.50%). As frying progress, there was reduction in biodiesel yield, though insignificant difference in yield was observed between the biodiesel obtained from unripe plantain frying process and that obtained from the sweet potato frying process.

The anti- microbial activity tests of the seed oil, NaOH and ash soaps of the seed oil, of C.albidum were carried out to determine their effectiveness against gram+, gram– bacteria and some fungi strains. The proximate analysis of C.albidum seeds was performed to determine its nutritional benefits to mankind. Agar diffusion tests using Disc diffusion for the pure oils and soaps while the cup plate test method for dilutions was used in the determination of in-vitro activities. Standard methods as described by AOAC, (1990); AOAC, (1984) and Kjeldahl method described by Chang (2003) were used for proximate determinations. The results show the activity of the oil against Klebsiella pneumonia at a concentration as low as 10 mg/ml. The ash-soap of the leaves shows the highest antimicrobial activities because its MIC is the closest to the standard, Streptomycin. It possesses activity against Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumonia at a concentration as low as 5mg/ml. The % proximate anal...

Aims: Physico-chemical, Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) and Cold saponification was carried out on Lannea microcarpa (Wild grape) seed oil with the aim of identifying the quality and quantity of the oil and its suitability in soap production. Study Design: Experimental and instrumental study was done to determine the physicochemical characteristics, fatty acids present in the seed oil and its suitability for soap production. Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted at the Biochemistry Laboratory, Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aliero, Nigeria from May to June, 2014. Methodology: The hexane extract of the sample was obtained by complete extraction using Soxhlet extractor, physicochemical analysis was carried out. A gas chromatography coupled with mass spectroscopy detector (GC-MS) system was used for the qualitative fatty acid determination. Simple cold method saponification was used in producing the soap. Results: The powdered seed (50 g) ...

In this present study, the environmental and fungal contamination of palm oil collected from Anyigba market, Nigeria was investigated. Results revealed the presence of 0.3% moisture, 0.2% impurity and 6.0% free fatty acid. These values were higher than the acceptable values for palm oil as recommended by the Nigerian Agency for Food and Drug Administration (NAFDAC) Research. Microbial content of the palm oil samples showed the following isolates Phialophora jeanselmei, Trichophyton schoeuleinii and Microsporum canis. The presence of these potentially harmful microorganisms in the palm oil samples portrays a relative health hazards to the consumers of the product. The quality of palm oil may thus be affected by environmental and fungal content. Consequently, an improved method of handling, processing and storage is advocated.

The present study aimed to evaluate antimicrobial activity of ethanol, methanol, schnapp (40% alcohol), oil palm wine and Raffia palm wine extracts of moss species Archidium ohioense, Pelekium gratum and Hyophila involuta against Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans and Candida pseudotropicalis. The antimicrobial activities of the alcoholic extracts were tested against selected microorganisms using agar well diffusion method. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of the extracts were determined using standard methods. The antimicrobial test of the extracts on selected organisms revealed that the methanolic and ethanolic extracts of the mosses studied were inactive against all the bacteria and fungi screened, while the schnapp, Oil palm wine and Raffia palm wine extracts showed significant activity against the selected organisms. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value of the extracts on the test organisms ran...

Citrus sinensis seed and peel oils were extracted by solvent extraction using n-hexane, after air drying and grinding. Soaps were formed by saponification methods. Fatty acid composition of the oil samples were analyzed using Gas Chromatograph-Flame Ionization Detector (GC-FID). Physicochemical properties of the oils and soaps were determined following standard methods. Antimicrobial activities were assessed by the agar disc and hole-in plate methods. The seed and peel oil yield were 38 and 30%, respectively and the colors were golden yellow and brownish-yellow, respectively. Physicochemical properties of the oil samples determined were: refractive index (RI): 1.46 and 1.47, smoke point: 140 and 149, flash point: 150 and 160, pH: 5.2 and 4.2, acid value (AV): 23.6 and 25.1 mgKOH/g, free fatty acid (FFA): 11.86% as oleic acid and 12.61% as oleic acid, iodine value (IV): 78.83I2 g/100 g and 120.10I2 g/100 g, peroxide value (PV): 18.00 mgKOH/g and 5.40 mgKOH/g, saponification value (SV...

The anti- microbial activity tests of the seed oil, NaOH and ash soaps of the seed oil, of C.albidum were carried out to determine their effectiveness against gram+, gram– bacteria and some fungi strains. The proximate analysis of C.albidum seeds was performed to determine its nutritional benefits to mankind. Agar diffusion tests using Disc diffusion for the pure oils and soaps while the cup plate test method for dilutions was used in the determination of in-vitro activities. Standard methods as described by AOAC, (1990); AOAC, (1984) and Kjeldahl method described by Chang (2003) were used for proximate determinations. The results show the activity of the oil against Klebsiella pneumonia at a concentration as low as 10 mg/ml. The ash-soap of the leaves shows the highest antimicrobial activities because its MIC is the closest to the standard, Streptomycin. It possesses activity against Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumonia at a concentration as low as 5mg/ml. The % proximate anal...

The anti- microbial activity tests of the seed oil, NaOH and ash soaps of the seed oil, of C.albidum were carried out to determine their effectiveness against gram+, gram– bacteria and some fungi strains. The proximate analysis of C.albidum seeds was performed to determine its nutritional benefits to mankind. Agar diffusion tests using Disc diffusion for the pure oils and soaps while the cup plate test method for dilutions was used in the determination of in-vitro activities. Standard methods as described by AOAC, (1990); AOAC, (1984) and Kjeldahl method described by Chang (2003) were used for proximate determinations. The results show the activity of the oil against Klebsiella pneumonia at a concentration as low as 10 mg/ml. The ash-soap of the leaves shows the highest antimicrobial activities because its MIC is the closest to the standard, Streptomycin. It possesses activity against Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumonia at a concentration as low as 5mg/ml. The % proximate anal...

This paper deals with the extraction and characterization of seed oil of Mirabilis Jalapa, commonly called as the marvel of Peru or four o&#39;clock flower using petroleum ether as solvent. The seeds were found to contain 4.5% oil .Refractive index, specific gravity, saponification number, and Iodine value, acid number was determined as main physicochemical characteristics. The density of extracted oil was found as 0.70 g/ml .The iodine value was found as 83 and saponification value 174. This saponification value indicates moderate cleansing ability whereas the high iodine value suggests reactivity towards atmospheric oxidation on exposure to air. Indexed TermsMirabilis Jalapa, seed oil, solvent extraction, physicochemical properties, and saponification

This research involved investigation of the extraction yield and antioxidant property of orange peel on lipid oxidation. Orange peel was oven dried, grinded to powder and extraction procedure carried out using methanol as solvent in a soxhlet extractor. The effects of time and temperature on the extraction process were considered and results obtained showed an optimum extraction temperature and time of 50oC and 120 minutes respectively. X-ray fluorescence analysis of the orange peel extract showed that potassium and calcium are the major elements by percentage composition of 55.5 and 32.65 respectively. In studying the effects of orange peel extract on the melon oil sample, peroxide, free fatty acid and pH analysis were carried out for a period of 60 day. The results obtained confirmed the ability of orange peel extract as antioxidant agent.

Melinjo (Gnetum gnemon L.) peel has been known as antioxidant, antibacterial, and antifungal, but not yet used as cosmetic ingredients or drugs optimally. This research focuses on the production of organic soap bars from melinjo peel extract, the quality testing, and antimicrobial analysis against selected microbes. The soap making process was done by the saponification reaction between the mixture of palm oil and coconut oil with sodium hydroxide through cold and hot processes. Distilled water and ethanol were used as solvents for melinjo peel extraction. The quality test was done by determining insoluble fraction in ethanol, free alkali, and unsaponified fatty matter. An antimicrobial activity test was conducted using the Kirby-Bauer diffusion method. The result shows that the quality test fit with INS 2016 for all the criteria except for unsaponified fatty acid in the cold process soap bar. Inhibition zone of organic soap bar sequentially decreased against the growth of Tricophyt...

Palado (Aglaia sp) is a plant that grows wild in the forest around Mamuju regency of West Sulawesi, Indonesia. This plant is locally known as palado. Palado seeds (Aglaia sp) can be used as a source of vegetable oil because it contains approximately 14.75 % oil, and it has the potential to be used as food ingredients or as raw material for oil production. The purpose of this study was to determine the chemical properties and the composition of fatty acids contained in palado seed oil (Aglaia sp). The employed method involved the use of palado fruit that had been processed to be palado seed and undergoing flouring process. Palado flour was produced by the extraction process by using chloroform solvent with the soxhlet method. The characteristics of the chemical properties in the oil produced were analyzed by using a standard method, including iodine, saponification, and acid values. The analysis of fatty acid composition was conducted by using gas chromatography. The results showed that palado oil extracted with hexane had an iodine value of 15.38 mg/g, saponification value of 190.01 mg KOH/g, and acids value of 1.961 mg KOH/g. The fatty acid composition of the palado seed oil consisted of saturated fatty acids (41.601 %), which included palmitic acid (41.062 %), myristic acid (0.539 %), and unsaturated fatty acids (45.949 %), which included mono-unsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) such as (22.929 %), oleic acid and poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), which was linoleic acid (23.020 %).

Soap is sodium or potassium salt of fatty acid produced by saponification reaction using sodium or potassium hydroxide. It is used for cleaning, bathing, and washing. Soaps were produced from bleached palm oil (BPO) and Moringa oleifera   seed oil using the cold process method with slight modification. The physicochemical properties (acid value, saponification value, peroxide value, iodine value and moisture content) of the oil were determined and it showed that the values are within the standard specifications.  The quality of the soaps were also assessed by determining the  physicochemical properties such as; free caustic alkali, matter insoluble in alcohol (MIA), pH, total fatty matter (TFM), cleaning properties, washing properties and foam stability. All the results obtained showed that the soaps analyzed are good soaps safe for the skin.