Comparative Law

This public letter reflects upon conscience, citizenship, adjudication, and institutional legitimacy following the author’s disbarment from the practice of law in Washington State. Rather than framing the event primarily as personal loss, the letter explores themes involving discernment, constitutional duty, judicial legitimacy, and the continuing obligation of ordinary citizens to examine whether justice visibly appears to be occurring within modern institutions. Drawing upon the famous exchange between Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, the letter situates these reflections within a broader American tradition of conscience-based civic inquiry.

TABLE OF CONTENTS: 1. Introduction. -2. "Digital Constitutionalism 1.0": the FRA, freedom of expression and the platformised public sphere. -2.1. The FRA's Conception of Freedom of Expression and Information Compared to that of the Council of Europe. -2.1.1. (Racist) Hate Speech & Terrorist Propaganda. -2.1.2. Disinformation as the deliberate creation of false facts/news in bad faith. -2.1.3.

The paper offers a reflection on abuses of autonomy in the prospect of leaving nullity as typical
and extreme remedy. The investigated area is wide, and the possible remedies are varied; they
are examined in their meaning, scope and appropriateness, bearing in mind the well-known
problem of the contractual justice. Finally, the Author proposes, as a preventive protection, the
refusal to comply and a related new objection, ‘the objection of pre-contractual tort’.

Today, a plurality of personal statuses in family matters persists in a significant number of African and Asian countries. This volume identifies 33 countries as presenting this configuration and provides a comprehensive overview of their legal systems, examining the relationship between the plurality of personal laws and the principle of equality. After a long period of stability dating from the colonial era, these countries are seeing more and more conflicts involving the plurality of personal status laws. The work takes a comparative and multidisciplinary approach to understand the different aspects and levels involved in this heterogeneity and link them with the concepts of equality and non-discrimination. The first part of the book presents the concepts used to analyse personal status laws in their historical, sociological, ethnographic, and legal contexts. The chapters in the remainder of the book, each devoted to a country or in some cases a group of neighbouring countries, are written by specialists drawn from a large international and interdisciplinary pool. With its multidisciplinary approach, including law, history, and anthropology, the work will be a major contribution to the field of "socio-historical jurisprudence." It will be of interest to academics and researchers working in the areas of sociolegal studies, human rights, religion-inspired law, and law and politics.

Sommario 1. Introduzione: un terzo, atteso e cospicuo, pacchetto di riforme del regolamento della Camera.-2. Aumentano le simmetrie tra Camera e Senato, in ulteriore attuazione del monito di cui alla sentenza n. 35 del 2017.-2.1. La Camera recupera due legislature perse, senza riforme regolamentari.-2.2. La Camera adotta discipline analoghe, o comunque più vicine a quelle del Senato.-2.3. Si sviluppano le procedure bicamerali concordate (tra le Giunte per il regolamento e tra i Presidenti di Assemblea).-3. Tuttavia, non poche asimmetrie persistono, e qualcun'altra ne nasce.-4. Conclusioni. L'ineludibile questione delle commissioni permanenti, alla vigilia della XX legislatura repubblicana.

Despite over a century of international efforts to unify the legal framework governing the carriage of goods by sea, the concurrent application of the Hague, Hague-Visby, Hamburg, and Rotterdam Rules has produced legal fragmentation rather than harmonisation. This thesis adopts a doctrinal methodology to comparatively analyse these four regimes, evaluating their provisions on carrier and shipper duties, period of liability, identification of the carrier, and the endorsee's right to sue. It identifies critical gaps, including the absence of uniform rules on unascertained goods, electronic bills of lading, and carrier identification in charterparty contexts. The study further examines Nigeria's dual domestication of both the Hague and Hamburg Rules, revealing unresolved legal conflicts. It concludes that genuine uniformity remains aspirational and recommends targeted amendments, including adoption of the English COGSA 1992 model of endoresee's title to sue, electronic transport record liability rules under the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Transferable Record 2017, and formal denunciation of conflicting conventions by the Nigerian legislature.

n recent years, some legal systems have granted legal personhood to nature in general, or to specific natural elements such as rivers or forests. Legal personhood is considered necessary for the transition from an anthropocentric view to an ecocentric conception of the world. Including nature among legal subjects can therefore be the premise for its more effective protection. The article examines various examples of the recognition of legal personhood, which is often linked to the ancient cultural and religious traditions of local populations

The politicisation of competition and antitrust enforcement has gained prominence in recent years. Competition authorities face mounting political pressure that can undermine their independence and challenge the legitimacy of the discipline. This ongoing process of instrumentalisation, in which enforcement is used as a tool to achieve short-term political or financial goals, ignores the long-term negative effects on competitiveness, innovation, and consumer welfare. This worrying trend weakens substantive consistency, analytical integrity and trust, and opens the door to illicit influence and capture. Its harmful impacts transcend national borders, as once it is normalised in major jurisdictions, others may follow. Confronting this trend is riddled with challenges, not least since it is a byproduct of broader societal and political trends, including the erosion of the rule of law, political accountability, and democratic governance.

This document analyses the impacts of the crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in Argentina, especially the effects related to employment and the labour market as a function of the economic and social context. The study offers general and sector-level estimates on the subject, based on an analysis of the data available for the first quarter of 2020. It uses a categorization of activities elaborated by the ILO according to the level of risk related to the pandemic and based on the implementation of the hypothetical extraction model. In accordance with this analysis, the report identifies major vulnerabilities in the world of work, it highlights the measures implemented by the government and it indicates specific objectives that could guide future public policies, while underscoring the importance of social dialogue in designing strategies oriented at achieving more sustainable, inclusive and productive economies in view of the deep transformations involving to the world of work in this pandemic.

Disavowing Insincere Justification as a Means of Unmasking the Putative Rational Persona Behind the Brazilian Supreme Court's Jurisprudence:
An examination of the purportedly legitimizing grounds of decisions rendered by the Brazilian Supreme Court (Supremo Tribunal Federal) reveals a recurring yet undertheorized phenomenon: the systematic displacement of ratio decidendi by acts of naked judicial voluntas, that is, decisions driven by will rather than reason, subsequently dressed in the garb of legal legitimacy.

This research aims to emphasize the importance of consumer protection in Indonesia. Law No. 9 of 1999 regulates the consumer's right to education. However, the legal norms for consumer protection do not regulate in detail the knowledge that should be taught. The position of consumers becomes weaker, making them vulnerable to fraud. Any loss suffered constitutes a violation of the objectives of the Consumer Protection Act in Indonesia. Consumer conditions in Indonesia are different from those in Singapore. The 2009 Consumer Protection (Fair Trading) Act does not specifically regulate consumer education materials. However, the Consumers Association of Singapore (CASE) actively provides education to consumers in Singapore. This research will compare the consumer education in Indonesia and Singapore. The comparative results will lead this research to suggestions for legislative power holders regarding how consumer education laws should be drafted and implemented in Indonesia.

Until 2018 public trust in judiciary in Lithuania was more negative than positive. Results of 2018 are exceptional as show the highest rates of trust in 22 years. The aim of this article -to find out if these results are coincidence or indicate increase of public trust in judiciary. To explore this issue this paper will analyze the concept and dynamics of trust in judiciary, possible measures of professionalism and examine how these aspects are reflected in Lithuanian judiciary. Our research reveals two main reasons for the improved trust in the judiciary: good performance including use of technology and greater transparency that provides the public greater access to information about the justice system.

Офіційна теза російської дипломатії щодо «самовизначення народів України» є ключовим псевдоправовим конструктом, що дав формальні підстави для приєднання українських територій до росії та частково успішного заперечення останньою своєї агресії. У сучасному міжнародному праві наявні окремі неоднозначні норми щодо можливих винятків із загального підходу щодо підстав і реалізації права народів на самовизначення та його співвідношення з принципом територіальної цілісності й політичної єдності держав, зокрема, можливості т. зв. корекційної сецесії для регіональних спільнот. Це конституює «сіру зону» міжнародного права як поле для маніпуляцій і фальсифікацій інформацією та її кваліфікацією. Цим користується росія, яка маскує агресію під допомогу нововинайденим народам у реалізації ними права на самовизначення. Ключові слова: міжнародне право, народ, право народу на самовизначення, корекційна сецесія, територіальна цілісність держави, політична єдність держави, агресія, російська агресія проти України.
Kresin Оleksiy. The thesis on the "self-determination of the peoples of Ukraine" as the russian attempt to avoid responsibility for aggression The official thesis of Russian diplomacy on the "self-determination of the peoples of Ukraine" is a key pseudo-legal construct that provided formal grounds for the annexation of Ukrainian territories to Russia and the latter's partially successful denial of its aggression. Modern international law offers some ambiguous assumptions regarding possible exceptions to the general approach to the grounds and exercise of the right of peoples to self-determination and its correlation with the principle of territorial integrity and political unity of states, in particular, the possibility of the so-called correctional secession for regional communities. This constitutes a "gray zone" of international law as a field for manipulation and falsification of information and its qualification. Russia uses this, disguising aggression as assistance to newly invented peoples in exercising their right to self-determination. Keywords: international law, people, right to self-determination, correctional secession, territorial integrity of state, political unity of state, aggression, russian aggression against Ukraine.

A certain degree of “default” flexibility in residential lease relations is important in guaranteeing the tenant’s right to free movement and facilitating mobility in the labour market; in other words, the tenant should enjoy a right to terminate the tenancy relationship without extensive adverse consequences. With this in mind, I will first elaborate the comparative analysis on the tenant’s right to terminate. Next, I will argue that tenants in Estonia have no real choice to opt for the flexibility needed without a trade-off in terms of stability, and why asymmetry of the parties’ right to terminate is recommendable. Finally, I propose considering Europe-wide best practices and the local socioeconomic environment, with draft amendments to Estonian tenancy law in order to meet needs.

Todos los derechos de Propiedad Intelectual pertenecen a sus respectivos titulares, por lo que se prohíbe la reproducción salvo para usos no comerciales y siempre que se cite la fuente completa y su dirección electrónica . Queda prohibida la transformación, en todo o en parte, así como la incorporación a otra obra de los contenidos sin el permiso escrito de los titulares del copyright.

Comparazione praticata dai cultori del diritto positivo Scopo conoscitivo secondario. Centrali sono specifiche finalità di politica del diritto: promuovere riforme, interpretare disposizioni… La struttura logica della comparazione Raffronto tra stati di più oggetti rispetto a una proprietà. Esaltando il profilo della proprietà Comparazione che unisce. Esaltando il profilo dell'oggetto Comparazione che divide. Comparazione che unisce Marco (oggetto) è alto (proprietà) 1,68 m (stato della proprietà). Carla (oggetto) è alta (proprietà) 1,66 m (stato della proprietà). Marco e Carla sono simili.

There has, for centuries, been an interest in various jurisdictions concerning the phenomenon that is variously described as jury nullification, perverse verdicts, and so on. Essentially, of jurors not applying the law as it is set out to them by the trial judge. More recently, the phenomenon of the unrepresented defendant, and of decisions such as Dobbs undermining longstanding constitutional protections, has raised the question of whether an appeal to nullification might form a legitimate legal tactic in a trial. This chapter offers the first comparative discussion of the doctrine on the parties themselves requesting nullification from their juries.

Penulisan skripsi ini dilatarbelakangi adanya pandangan tentang masih banyaknya hakim-hakim yang melanggar Kode Etik dan Pedoman Perilaku Hakim (disingkat KEPPH). Pelanggaran KEPPH tersebut dinilai merusak citra dan martabat hakim sebagai penegak hukum, bahkan menghambat perwujudan keadilan. Dan penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui sekaligus menguji seberapa jauh peran dan kedudukan KEPPH sebagai salah satu instrumen pengawal tegaknya keadilan dalam negara. Juga mengetahui kendala atau hambatan yang muncul dalam penerapannya. Penelitian ini berjudul “Fungsi dan Kedudukan Kode Etik dan Pedoman Perilaku Hakim dalam Mewujudkan Keadilan”, dengan rumusan masalahnya adalah bagaimana fungsi dan kedudukan KEPPH dalam proses perwujudan keadilan serta kendala-kendala dalam penerapan KEPPH. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode library research (penelitian kepustakaan) dengan pendekatan deskriptif-analitis yaitu pencarian data, yang dalam hal ini merupakan dokumen tertu...

Land Administration in Nigeria dates back to pre-colonialism Nigeria. Before the advent of colonialism, customary land laws applies in different parts of the country especially southern Nigeria while Islamic law applies in most parts of Northern Nigeria. After the advent of colonialism, several ordinances and proclamations were passed by the colonial administration on land administration. This paper aims to identify key laws and stakeholders in land administration with intent to suggest improvement on land administration in Nigeria. Several laws govern land administration in post independence Nigeria. The Land Use Act 1978 is one of the extent laws on land administration in Nigeria. The court, the Bar and the Executive are key stakeholders in land administration in Nigeria. Use of modern technology, training of staff and staff welfare are some important suggestions for better land administration in Nigeria. Doctrinal methodology was adopted in this paper due to its nature and object...

Ten years ago Pierre Legrand published his frequently quoted article with the provocative title European Legal Systems are not Converging. 1 The thesis he defended in this article was that the legal systems of the member states in the European Union due to their epistemological backgrounds actually were more diverging than converging. Historical and cultural phenomena explained his statement. As long as the legal education, the concept of national law schools, and the professional careers of the lawyers demonstrated such obviously different concepts in the European countries regarding systematization, argumentation and history, as long would also the legal systems in Europe diverge. The different legal cognitive structures are demonstrating a strong contra force to the merging legal system within the European communities. Pierre Legrand's thesis may be right, questionized or even wrong, but his statement is interesting and important, and it has had an important impact for the discourses and constructs regarding law and jurisprudence in the Nordic countries in the late modernity. In my view our time, the late modernity of the 21 st century, is a new time of romanticism to a great extent similar with that of the early 19 th century. 2 Old archetypes of law are rediscovered, contextualization of the law gives new historical and cultural perspectives of law, and deep structures of law are again made visible not only within legal science but also within judicial jurisprudence. The theme of this volume is conforming this statement.

Old paint on canvas, as it ages, sometimes becomes transparent. When that happens it is possible, in some pictures, to see the original lines: a tree will show through a woman's dress, a child will make way for a dog, a large boat is no longer on an open sea. That is called pentimento because the painter "repented, " changed his mind. Perhaps it would be as well to say that the old conception, t

our-libertarian-age-dogma-democracy-dogma-decline). * There are more common citations for the main points of the argument. But as with items 52 and 53 above, I have opted for the earlier piece rather than the somewhat better known follow-ons.

This article's title is suggested by Robert G. Dunbar's fine book on the historical development of water rights in the west, FORGING NEW RIGHTS IN WESTERN WATERS (1983). Dunbar is emeritus professor of history at Montana State University. * John E. Thorson is an attorney specializing in water and natural resource law. A graduate of the University of California, Berkeley, Thorson has served as regional counsel to the Western Governors' Conference, director of the Conference of Western Attorneys General, and co-editor of WESTERN NATURAL RESOURCE LITIGATION DIGEST. Thorson served as consultant to the Montana Select Committee on Water Marketing from 1984-85. ** Margery H. Brown is a professor of law at the University of Montana. She holds an M.A. degree in history and a J.D. degree from the University of Montana. From 1964-68, she studied in the history doctoral program at the University of Montana and then served on the two preparatory commissions for the Montana Constitutional Convention of 1972. Her teaching fields are Indian and public land law. *** Brenda C. Desmond is a staff attorney for the Montana Legislative Council and was the attorney for the legislative Joint Interim Subcommittee No. 2 referred to in this article. Desmond graduated from the Katholieke Universiteit te Leuven (Belgium) with a bachelors degree in philosophy in 1972 and received a J.D. degree from the State University of New York at Buffalo Faculty of Law and Jurisprudence in 1976.

International commerce includes a wide range of transactional operations that arise between business partners-individuals and entitieslocated in different places. This is related to economic and legal risks to much extent. A letter of credit, which is also referred as to a documentary credit, is one of the important tools of payment methods over the globe. This paper examines not only the legal nature, role and importance of the system Letter of Credit (L/C) in the global market, but also potential reduction of non-payment situations and introduction of guarantees for importer and exporters. The specific system under the UCP 600 for international L/C operations is given the unique focus while discussing the mechanism of resolving disputes arising from international letter of credit operations. Moreover, the advantages of using documentary credits, the reason of prioritization of L/C over other payment methods are analyzed, at the same time some limited operations while issuing documentary credits, particularly the standard of strict compliance and the principle of independence of L/C from the main contract between parties who ask to issue a credit, are criticized throughout the paper. Аннотация. Международная торговля включает в себя широкий спектр транзакционных операций, возникающих между деловыми партнерами-физическими и юридическими лицами,-расположенными в разных местах. Это в значительной степени связано с экономическими и правовыми рисками. Аккредитив, также называемый документарным аккредитивом, является одним из важных инструментов платежных систем во всем мире. В данной статье рассматривается не только правовая природа, роль и значение системы аккредитивов (АК) на мировом рынке, но и потенциальное снижение числа случаев неплатежей и введение гарантий для импортеров и экспортеров. Особое внимание уделяется специфической системе в рамках UCP 600 для международных операций с аккредитивами, а также обсуждается механизм разрешения споров, возникающих в связи с международными операциями с аккредитивами. Кроме того, анализируются преимущества использования документарных аккредитивов, причины приоритета аккредитивов перед другими методами платежей, а также критикуются некоторые ограничения при выдаче документарных аккредитивов, в частности, стандарт строгого соблюдения и принцип независимости аккредитива от основного договора между сторонами, запрашивающими аккредитив. Annotatsiya. Xalqaro savdo turli joylarda joylashgan biznes hamkorlar-jismoniy va yuridik shaxslar-o'rtasida yuzaga keladigan keng ko'lamli tranzaksiya operatsiyalarini o'z ichiga oladi. Bu ko'p jihatdan iqtisodiy va huquqiy xavflar bilan bog'liq. Hujjatli akkreditiv deb ham ataladigan akkreditiv butun dunyo bo'ylab to'lov usullarining muhim vositalaridan biridir. Ushbu maqolada nafaqat akkreditiv tizimining (AK) global bozordagi huquqiy tabiati, roli va ahamiyati, balki to'lovlarni amalga oshirmaslik holatlarini kamaytirish va import qiluvchilar va eksportchilar uchun kafolatlarni joriy etish imkoniyatlari ham ko'rib chiqiladi. Xalqaro akkreditiv operatsiyalari uchun UCP 600 bo'yicha maxsus tizimga xalqaro akkreditiv operatsiyalaridan kelib chiqadigan nizolarni hal qilish mexanizmi muhokama qilinayotganda alohida e'tibor qaratiladi. Bundan tashqari, hujjatli akkreditivlardan foydalanishning afzalliklari, akkreditivning boshqa to'lov usullariga nisbatan ustuvorligining sababi tahlil qilinadi, shu bilan birga hujjatli akkreditivlarni berishda ba'zi cheklangan operatsiyalar, xususan, qat'iy rioya qilish standarti va akkreditivning akkreditiv berishni so'ragan tomonlar o'rtasidagi asosiy shartnomadan mustaqilligi prinsipi maqola davomida tanqid qilinadi.

This paper introduces the Rule of Morality, an original normative framework in political theory that reconceptualises the relationship between society, institutions, and governance. Against the dominant liberal tradition that treats the state and society as analytically distinct or even opposed spheres, the Rule of Morality argues that institutions are not autonomous entities but integral constituents of society, composed of individuals who emerge from within it and who reflect its prevailing moral condition. Institutional dysfunction, whether corruption, bureaucratic domination, or judicial failure, is thus understood not as an internal problem of governance but as a manifestation of moral deterioration within society itself. The paper develops this thesis in four stages: (1) a critical review of competing traditions in Western political thought regarding state-society relations; (2) an explication of the Rule of Morality framework and its theoretical premises; (3) an analysis of the role of philosophical foundations in shaping societal definitions of morality and their institutional implications; and (4) a normative account of the responsibilities of political leadership, the judiciary, and civil society in maintaining moral equilibrium. The paper concludes with broader reflections on the limitations of secularism and the separation of powers doctrine under conditions of moral crisis, and argues for a philosophically grounded approach to governance.

Par son caractère atypique, la présidence Trump bouscule l’ordre constitutionnel américain et soulève des questions inédites.
Dans le rapport de Donald Trump à la Constitution, il est possible d’envisager la manière dont il conduit à la repenser, suscitant ainsi une densification du discours constitutionnel, la manière dont il l’enfreint, ce qui soulève la question délicate des sanctions, et enfin la manière dont il la façonne.
L’article accorde une attention particulière au rôle des juges dans cette dynamique, car s’ils sont exposés au premier plan aux agissements singuliers de Donald Trump, ils sont aussi le moyen premier par lequel ce dernier forge la Constitution, à travers ses nominations à la Cour suprême.

Área do Direito: Processual Resumo: O presente texto aborda algumas nuances do processualismo constitucional democrático e da utilização equivocada de tendências de padronização decisória. Oferta ainda alguns subsídios acerca do fenômeno de convergência entre sistemas de common law e civil law no Brasil.

it is broadly acknowledged, the crime and criminal justice management are recognized as a growing problem worldwide. There are a few places in the world that are not currently dealing with issues related to juvenile justice. A very practical issue that most countries face is how to manage youth crime through drafting, revising or rethinking the juvenile justice system, including the court system and legislation. Hence, examining the experiences of different jurisdictions allows for the identification of common problems and themes and contributes to the comprehension of the strengths and weaknesses of a particular juvenile justice system. Overall, this process contributes to improving trends in juvenile justice policy. From this perspective, this article focuses on the topics facing the Georgian juvenile justice reform through identifying solutions found in the German and the American juvenile justice settings. Studying the German model of juvenile justice policy is especially important since the structures of legal systems in these two countries, Germany and Georgia, are quite similar. The Georgian legal system stems from the German framework, whereas the U.S. model of juvenile law recognizes some distinct features of the American juvenile justice system. Consequently, this comparative research endeavors to describe, evaluate and summarize the advantages, benefits and best sides of the juvenile justice system in light of American and German trends in this regard. Reconsidering the juvenile justice in Georgia and the adoption of reasonable and nondiscriminative regulations is almost unfeasible without finding and assessing the weaknesses and strengths of these systems found in the legislation of Western countries. The United States of America do not have a national juvenile justice system. Juvenile justice systems vary substantially from state to state, though the U.S. Constitution, federal policies and legislation, -produce significant common features. These separate systems, which are controlled largely by state law, differ from each other in mission, scope and procedure. These inherent variations provide many opportunities to test different approaches and new programs and to learn from each other, but they make it difficult to describe the juvenile justice in the United States comprehensively. 1 Researching the origin of the juvenile justice system in the U.S. and examining the legal responses to minors who break the law could be achieved through a profound analysis. This analysis should consider jurisdictional issues -when

2 B Simma, 'From Bilateralism to Community Interest in International Law' (1994) 250 Recueil des Cours de l'Académie de Droit International 217. 3 Simma, 'Bilateralism to Community Interest' (n 2) 234. 4 Simma, 'Universality of International Law' (n 1) 268.

The chapter provides analysis of the concept of human rights considered as the rights of a subject (subjective rights). It describes its emergence in 17 c. as well as further development of the construction, explaining why it is dubious to attribute emergence of rights in ancient times or in Middle Ages. Controversy between naturalistic and positivistic approach towards human rights is also discussed and explained along with the theory of will and that of interest. The chapter proposes to consider human rights as legal description of conditions considered to be necessary for development and ;ourishing of human being, providing it is understood as individual. This anthropological reservation is of fundamental importance as the philosophical concept of man determines the way we understand conditions enabling human life and development; hence it determines identity of the rights' concept as well as course of its evolution. Contemporary postmodern transgressions in this respect are also addressed, and it is discussed if the controversial developments of human rights, are to be considered as minor deviations from the generally sound idea, or should they be attributed to intrinsic de ciency of that concept, rising doubts as to the correctness of individualistic anthropology.

am very grateful to my friend Bryan Bachner and my colleague John KS Ho for their valuable comments and suggestions. I want to specially thank Suffolk University Law Review editors for their creative suggestions and meticulous editorial work. 1. BLACK'S LAW DICTIONARY 864 (8th ed. 2004) (defining judicial review). 2. See generally Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803). This landmark case determined that Article III of the United States Constitution authorizes judicial review.

This study investigates the correlation between Islamic personal philosophy (selfethics, moral discipline, and spiritual development) and Islamic political philosophy (government, justice, and public authority). It contends that Islam offers a cohesive normative framework wherein human moral change and political order are interrelated rather than distinct realms. The study illustrates that Islamic philosophy perceives the state as an extension of moral obligation, informed by Qur'anic ethics, Prophetic practice, classical jurisprudence, political theory, and modern reformist thought, rather than merely an administrative entity. The thesis asserts that sustainable governance in Islamic thought is rooted in the development of ethical persons, while personal virtue necessitates equitable political frameworks for its enhancement.

This chapter analyzes the role played by violence and forms of discipline, as well as their capacity to stimulate the development of law and, above all, the shaping of modern societies. It examines uses of justice, social and judicial practices, and accounts for the social and historical change that unfolded at different paces and speeds in the societies of the Old Regime, focusing on those that were structured within the framework of the Hispanic Monarchy, but within a broader comparative perspective.
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Este capítulo analiza el papel jugado por la violencia y las formas de disciplina, así como la capacidad de estímulo de ambas al desarrollo del derecho y, sobre todo, en la configuración de las sociedades modernas. Se analizan usos de la justicia, prácticas sociales y judiciales dando cuenta del cambio social e histórico impulsado a diferentes ritmos y velocidades en las sociedades del Antiguo Régimen, poniendo el foco en las que se vertebraron dentro de la estructura de la Monarquía Hispánica, pero dentro de perspectivas comparativas globales.

La agrupación de derechos nacionales crea un ordenamiento de ordenamientos, es decir, identifica jerarquías entre las agrupaciones y dentro de ellas, y por lo tanto tiene un indudable valor geopolítico. Esta circunstancia es particularmente evidente en el caso del derecho latinoamericano, tradicionalmente descuidado por carecer de identidad propia: se trataría simplemente de una mala imitación del derecho occidental, del que
representaría la periferia.
Para desmontar este esquema, algunos se han basado en las características del colonialismo, que en el siglo XVI fue de tipo asimilacionista: una lectura indulgente con los colonizadores, pero útil al menos para hacer emerger la identidad latinoamericana como una mezcla de rasgos indígenas y occidentales. Otros se han referido al proceso de unificación del derecho privado de la zona, que, sin embargo, parece prisionero de dinámicas etnocéntricas, como las que pasan por la referencia al derecho romano: esto puede
representar un elemento de resistencia latina solo al pacto de valorizar la contaminación con elementos ctónicos. Por último, el énfasis en el constitucionalismo andino como modelo holista opuesto al individualismo occidental apunta a exaltar la identidad latinoamericana.
Por último, la identidad latinoamericana surge de las teorías y prácticas concebidas para reaccionar al avance del neoliberalismo recurriendo a soluciones innovadoras y, por ello, estigmatizadas por la literatura occidental: como lo atestigua el debate en torno al populismo como elemento fundacional del giro a la izquierda.

This article develops a working theory of “judicial evil” as a distinct category of legal and historical inquiry. It begins from the structural premise—recognized in constitutional systems and international judicial norms alike—that adjudicative power must remain separate from political power if justice is to remain possible. Drawing from Alexander Hamilton’s conception of judicial power as “judgment” rather than force or will, and from international principles of judicial independence and neutrality, the article argues that judicial evil arises when courts abandon adjudication and become instruments of political power, social domination, institutional self-preservation, or legalized dispossession. Through historical examples including Dred Scott, Roland Freisler’s People’s Court, the Star Chamber, apartheid-era courts, and other categories of judicial severance and expropriation, the article proposes a diagnostic framework for public discernment. Its purpose is not to condemn judges casually, but to preserve the integrity of adjudication by clarifying the conditions under which courts cease to function as courts and become instruments of injustice.