Glossary of Indian Art

[abbreviations: NM = National Museum, T. = Temple]

Every culture must find a way to grasp the horns of polar opposites – male/female, good/bad, sky/earth, birth/death – which epitomize so much of the human condition. Additive cultures, like Egypt and India, accept these contradictions as imperfectly perceived parts of a greater unity.
Arjuna's Penance, Elephanta, Gommateshvara, Shiva Ardhanarishvara (Madras)

Agni

One of the dikpalas. Agni is the god of fire. He holds an offering spoon and rides a ram. Additional attributes may include a beard, a staff, water jar, and prayer beads.
Lakshmana T. (Khajuraho), Parshvanatha T. (Khajuraho)

Akbar

Mughal emperor, ruled 1556 - 1605.
Fatehpur Sikri, Jami Masjid (Fatehpur), Red Fort (Agra), Akbar's Tomb, Rajput Alliance

amalaka

The ribbed disk at the top of a shikhara.
Parts of a North Indian Temple

Ambika

"Mother," one of the forms of Devi.
Ambika Mata T. (Jagat)

Ananta, or Shesha

The cosmic serpent on which Vishnu sleeps, sits, or reclines, as he dreams the universe into existence. Shesha, or "Remainder," personifies the primordial substance out of which the universe is formed, which "remains" when the universe ends, and which fuels the start of the next cosmic cycle. He is also called Ananta, or "Endless," because the primordium is eternal and the cycle of cosmic birth and death repeats forever.
Badami (Cave 3), Keshava T. (Somnathpur)

Anantashayana

Vishnu sleeping on Ananta.
Shore Temple (Mamallapuram)

Andhaka

Demon slain by Shiva. Born from a drop of Shiva's sweat, Andhaka conceives an unnatural lust for his mother, Parvati, which accounts for Shiva's ferocious antagonism. Andhaka is usually shown, either impaled on Shiva's trident, or in skeletal form as Bhringi after submitting to Shiva, who had drained his blood during the conflict. Another demon, named Nila, was a friend of Andhaka. Nila took the form of an elephant and attacked Shiva during the fight, but was killed by one of Shiva's attendants. Two representations of Shiva from this battle, often combined, are Shiva Andhakasuravadha (impaling Andhaka) and Shiva Gajasamharara (dancing on Nila's decapitated head, or underneath his butchered skin).

Shiva fought a different battle with another of Parvati's sons, Ganesha, who had blocked Shiva's access to Parvati's bedchamber. Shiva beheaded Ganesha, and subsequently replaced his head with that of an elephant. Both stories seem to reflect a primal tradition where Shiva competes with a son or stepson for Parvati's favor. The elephant in these stories may symbolize the force of unrestrained passion.
Ellora (Cave 29), Ravana Phadi T. (Aihole)

aniconism (noun), aniconic (adjective)

The representation of god by a symbol rather than an image. Indian art overwhelmingly prefers the iconic image, but some aniconism does occur in folk worship, early Buddhism, Shiva's linga, and Vishnu's saligrama.
Sanchi (1), Sanchi (2), Sanchi (3). See also: footprint.

apsaras (singular; the correct plural is apsarasas.)

A celestial dancer. The apsarasas are wives of the gandharvas.
Ambika Mata T. (Jagat)

apse (noun), apsidal (adjective)

A "U" shaped chamber. A technical name for this shape is gajaprstika, which literally means an elephant's backside.
Ajanta Cave 19 interior, Ajanta Cave 26 interior, Durga T. (Aihole), Nakula Sahadeva Ratha (Mamallapuram), Vihara 4 (Nagarjunakonda)

architrave

A horizontal beam supported by upright posts.
Sanchi, Mukteshvara T. (Bhubaneshwar)

Ardhanarishvara

A form of Shiva that is half male, half female.
City Museum (Jaipur), Government Museum (Madras), Virupaksha T. (Pattadakal)

Aryans (noun, pl.), Aryan (adjective)

A warlike, nomadic people from the steppes of central Asia who invaded and colonized northern India, Europe and, the Middle East in the 2d millennium BC.

Ashoka Maurya

Buddhist emperor of India in the 3d century BC and patron of Sanchi. Many Buddhist temples were built, and Buddhist relics were collected, under his patronage.
image of Ashoka (Sanchi), Rock Edict (Dhauli)

attribute

An object that is associated with a god and carried or worn on his person. For example, the trident is a usual attribute of Shiva.

Avalokiteshvara

The Bodhisattva of Compassion.

avatar

An incarnation of Vishnu, most often in the form of a savior of mankind. There are ten major and countless minor avatars. The list of ten can vary somewhat, but one standard list includes, from earliest (in mythological time) to most recent:

Matsya, a fish who pulled the ark of Manu during the Great Flood. Ranganatha T. (Srirangam), Keshava T. (Somnathpur)

Kurma, a tortoise who supported the mountain used to churn the Ocean of Milk.

Varaha, a white boar who rescued the earth goddess Prithvi (Bhu Devi) during another Great Flood. Alagarkoil mandapa (Madurai), Badami (Cave 2), Badami (Cave 3), Bharat Kala Bhavan Museum (Varanasi), Birla Museum (Bhopal), Chennakeshava T. (Belur) Durga T. (Aihole), Hoysaleshvara T. (Halebid), Udayagiri, Varaha Cave Temple (Mamallapuram)

Narasimha, a man-lion who destroyed a demon named Hiranyakasipu. Alagarkoil gopura (Madurai), Alagarkoil mandapa (Madurai), Badami (Cave 3), Chennakeshvara T. (Belur), with consort (Keshava T., Somnathpur), Delhi NM, Durga T. (Aihole), Hoysaleshvara T. (Halebid), Monolith (Vijayanagara), Ranganatha T. (Srirangam), Virupaksha T. (Pattadakal)

Vamana, a dwarf who won back the universe from King Bali by transforming into Trivikrama and then crossing the universe in three giant steps. Alagarkoil gopura (Madurai), Alagarkoil mandapa (Madurai), Badami (Cave 2), Badami (Cave 3), Bharat Kala Bhavan, Delhi NM, Harihara Temple 1 (Osian), Harihara Temple 2 (Osian), Hoysaleshvra T. (Halebid), Virupaksha T. (Pattadakal)

Parashurama, "Rama with an axe," a brahman (priest) who fought and defeated a hostile clan of kshatryas (warriors). Sasbahu T. (Nagda)

Rama, the hero of the Ramayana. Coronation of Rama (Orchha), Diwali

Krishna, a god-man who is still popular and fervently worshiped. Growing up as a mischievous boy among the gopis (milkmaids), he defeated numerous enemies, became Arjuna's charioteer in the Bhagavad-Gita, and was eventually killed by a hunter who mistook him for a deer. Baby Krishna, Hazara Rama T. (Vijayanagara) Dancing on Kaliya (Delhi NM), Govardhana (Bharat Kala Bhavan), Govardhana (Krishna Mandapa, Mamallapuram), Krishna and the Gopis (Alagarkoil, Madurai), Playing the flute (Alagarkoil, Madurai), Playing the flute - on outside wall, Keshava T. (Somnathpur), Playing the flute - enshrined, Keshava T. (Somnathpur)

Buddha, considered by Hindus to be a "false incarnation" who led the Hindu faithful astray. Keshava T., Somnathpur

Kalki, a final incarnation who will appear at the end of the present epoch to lead mankind into a new Golden Age.

Balarama

Krishna's older brother, a less important incarnation of Vishnu. Sasbahu T. (Nagda), Parshvanatha T. (Khajuraho)

bangla

A roof that is curved to resemble a hut.
Red Fort (Agra), Draupadi Ratha (Mamallapuram)

Bhagavad Gita

"The Song of God," a devotional hymn to Krishna in the Mahabharata.

Bhairava

A fierce form of Shiva as a wondering ascetic, when he was forced to do penance for cutting off one of Brahma's heads. He holds Brahma's skull cap as a begging bowl, often holds the head itself, and is accompanied by his vahana , a dog. This form shares many attributes with Bhikshatana. If the image does not wear sandals, it is definitely Bhairava. If the image does wear sandals, it is either Bhikshatana or an amalgamation of Bhikshatana and Bhairava.
Devi Jagadambi T. (Khajuraho), Kandariya Mahadeva T. (Khajuraho), Hoysaleshvara T. (Halebid) [1], Hoysaleshvara T. (Halebid) [2], North Bengal

bhakti

Deep personal devotion to one's chosen god, a form of Hindu worship which arose in the early centuries AD as a response to Buddhism and in reaction against Brahmanic ritual. The Bhagavad Gita is a culminating expression of this ideal. Bhakti can be directed towards any god or goddess, but has been a particularly distinctive feature of the worship of Krishna since medieval times, and continuing on into the modern period.

Bhikshatana

Shiva, in the form of "The Enchanting Mendicant," a wandering ascetic. Encountering a group of forest-dwelling Brahmins, he made love to their wives, and quarreled fiercely with the husbands. The quarrel was settled when he threw down his lingam onto the ground and made them worship it. In this form Shiva is naked, with a snake around his hips and sandals on his feet (the only representation in Hindu art of a god wearing sandals). The form is often amalgamated to Bhairava, in which case he is given Bhairava's attributes in addition to his own.
Kailasanatha T. (Kanchipuram), Brihadeshvara T. (Thanjavur), Rajaraja museum (Thanjavur), Hoysaleshvara T. (Halebid), Chennakeshava T. (Belur)

bodhisattva

A Buddha in the making, a spiritually advanced being who delays his entry into Nirvana in order to stay in the world and save other sentient beings. Often worshiped in popular Buddhism. Because bodhisattvas are still in the world, they are often portrayed with princely garments, jewelry, and elaborate coiffure. The most important bodhisattva is Avalokiteshvara (Padmapani, or Lotus-Bearer), the bodhisattva of compassion. Another important bodhisattva is Vajrapani (Vajra-bearer), the bodhisattva of wisdom. The two together, wisdom and compassion, make up the essence of a Buddha.
Bharat Kala Bhavan, attending Buddha (Sanchi), requirements of bodhisattva (Sanchi), Maitreya (Delhi NM), seated, Pala period (10th century), Vajrapani (Ratnagiri), Shakyamuni triad (Ratnagiri)

Brahma

A creator god, with four heads to overlook each of the four directions. Often just three heads, or only one, are shown. Brahma is found both in Hindu and early Buddhist sculpture, eventually making his way to Japan as Bon-ten. His vahana is a wild goose (sometimes called a swan, but Huntington, for one, insists that the latter term is mistaken.)
Descent of the Buddha (Sanchi), Relief from Aihole (Prince of Wales Museum), Hoysaleshvara T., Halebid, Keshava T., Somnathpur (Hoysala, 1268), Linga (Delhi NM), Sasbahu T. (Nagda), Tirumalai Nayaka Palace (Chola, 12th century)

Brahman

The universal soul, ie the All, as distinguished from the individual or personal soul (atman). In mainstream Hindu philosophy, Brahman = atman, so that every person has the potential to achieve Godhood.

brahman (sometimes also brahmin, also cap.)

see caste system.

Brahmani

The female form of Brahma. One of the Seven Mothers.
Ambika Mata T. (Jagat), Sasbahu T. (Nagda), Madhya Pradesh, 11th century, Parashurameshvara T. (Bhubaneshwar)

Buddha

Siddhartha Gautama, a Hindu prince (conventionally dated 563 BC - 483 BC) who renounced the worldly life, became a wandering ascetic, achieved enlightenment, and founded the Buddhist religion. Buddha means "The Enlightened One" and is an honorific title. Siddhartha Gautama is his personal name. He is also called Shakyamuni, "The Sage of the Shakyas" (his birth clan). Technically the Buddha is not a god, but he is often worshiped as if divine.

The life of Buddha began to be represented in art sometime before 100 AD. The major episodes are: Dream of Maya (conception) – Birth – Four Sights (of human suffering) – Great Departure (leaving home) – Temptation of Mara – Enlightenment – First Sermon – Parinirvana (death of the Buddha).

Buddha was a contemporary of Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, and there are many intriguing parallels between the two religions.

Hinayana ("Lesser Vehicle") Buddhism emphasized the difficulty of attaining salvation, and advocated meditation and the monastic life as the means to salvation for a chosen few. This view was challenged by the mahayana ("Greater Vehicle") school, who proclaimed the existence of numerous Buddhas and Bodhisattvas as universal saviors.

Buddhism died out in India around 1200 AD, succumbing to Muslim invasions as well as a resurgent Hinduism. However, by this time the religion had spread via the trade routes to east and southeast Asia, where it took root and has flourished up to the present day.

Page references: Sanchi (all pages), Delhi NM, Bharat Kala Bhavan museum (Varanasi), Emaciated Buddha (Bharat Kala Bhavan), Seated Buddha (Ratnagiri) See also: Japan, Southeast Asia

caste system

An inflexible organization of Indian society by hereditary occupation. Introduced in the second millenium BC by the Aryan invaders, this stratification persists down to the present day, in spite of legal prohibitions and the best efforts of modern India to eradicate it. There are four castes, in descending order: brahmans (priests), kshatriyas (warriors), vaishyas (farm owners, merchants, artisans), and shudras (menials, laborers, serfs). Below even the shudras are the untouchables, a group so low that they are completely outside the caste system, composed of non-Aryan aborigines and polluted workers such as street-sweepers, tanners, corpse-handlers, and Western tourists.

cenotaph

[1] A mausoleum without a burial (literally, an "empty tomb.")
Mandor Gardens (Jodhpur), Jaswant Singh memorial (Jodhpur), Bundelkind memorials (Orchha)

[2] In Mughal royal burials, a surrogate tomb that receives public visits and substitutes for the real tomb, which is located in a lower chamber of the same building.
Tomb of Humayun (Delhi), Tomb of Akbar, Mausoleum of Tipu Sultan, Tomb of Mohammad Quli Qutb Shah

chaitya hall

A chaitya is any sacred place - a tree, spring, etc. In Buddhism, stupas are chaityas and a building containing a stupa (functioning as a shrine) is called a "chaitya hall."
Ajanta (Cave 9, 1st century BC), Ajanta (Cave 19, late 5th century AD), Ajanta (Cave 26, late 5th century AD), Ellora (Cave 10, 8th century AD)

chaitya arch

See chandrashala.

Chamunda

An emanation of Durga. Chamunda, the most terrifying of the Seven Mothers, represents old age and death.
Kandariya Mahadeva T. (Khajuraho), Ambika Mata T. (Jagat), Hoysaleshvara T. (Halebid), Chaunsath Yogini T. (Hirapur), Parashurameshvara T. (Bhubaneshwar)

chakra

[1] "wheel," a solar symbol.
[2] Vishnu's discus, a weapon.
[3] A supposed center of psychic energy in the human body.

chandrashala

The ubiquitous ogee, circular, or horseshoe-shaped arch, that decorates Indian temples and shrines. This arch is shaped like the cross-section of a barrel vault (shala). Chandrashala is the term most often used for this kind of arch. It is called a chaitya arch when used on the facade of a chaitya hall. It may also be called a gavaksha (or kudu, in Tamil) when applied as a decoration to structural temples.
Ajanta Cave 9 (1st century BC), Ajanta Cave 19(late 5th century), Dharmaraja Ratha (Mamallapuram, 7th century), Varaha Cave Temple (Mamallapuram, mid-7th century), Ellora Cave 10 (8th century)

chattra

A royal umbrella:

[1] held above the heads of kings and gods. For example, shielding Buddha's father (Sanchi).

[2] used as an aniconic representation of Buddha (example from Sanchi.)

[3] mounted on the spire of a Buddhist stupa.
Great Stupa (Sanchi), Stupa 3 (Sanchi), Parts of a Stupa.

chauri

(also, cauri) a fly-whisk held by attendants of a god or royal person.

chhajja

A Mughal angled roof eave.
Jahangir Mahal (Orchha), the Royal Palace (Amber), and other Mughal buildings.

chhatri

[1] A Mughal domed rooftop pavillion.
Zenana Entrance (Fatehpur Sikri), and other Mughal buildings.

[2] A memorial pavillion in chhatri style.
Mandor Gardens (Jodhpur), Bundelkind memorials (Orchha)

Chola bronzes

Portable bronze statues, made for temple worship during the Chola period (9th-13th centuries AD, in South India). Chola bronze-work is one of the great artistic traditions in India, and includes sculptures of Shiva Nataraja and many other divinities. Bibliographic reference: The Sensuous and the Sacred: Chola Bronzes from South India. Page references:
Bhu Devi, Krishna, Lakshmi, Marriage of Shiva and Parvati, Parvati [1] [2], Sambandha, Shiva Ardhanarishvara, Shiva Bhikshatana, Shiva Maheshvari, Shiva Nataraja [1] [2] [3] [4], Shiva Vinadhara [1] [2], Somaskanda

colonette

A small column that is attached to a larger column or pillar.
Ranganatha T. (Srirangam), Virupaksha T. (Hampi)

continuous narrative

A compositional technique that shows earlier and later parts of a story together in one scene, as if they had all happened at the same time.
Badami, Bharhut

corbeling

A building technique in which a span is supported by horizontally overlapping bricks.
Ranganatha T. (Srirangam), Mukteshvara T. (Bhubaneshwar), Monastery 4 (Nalanda)

Dakshinamurti

Shiva as supreme teacher of Yoga.
Tirumalai Nayaka Palace (Madurai, 1100)

darshan

"Seeing," the devotional viewing of an image during worship, or the ceremonial viewing of a ruler during public audience.

Devi

The Great Goddess, who is worshiped in India under a multitude of distinct forms. Any female deity in India can be considered as an aspect of Devi, even when consorting with a husband (Parvati), but especially when acting independently (Durga, Kali, etc.)
Ambika Mata T. (Jagat), Matrika (Nepal, 14th century)

dharma

"Law," in the comprehensive sense of behavior which is right, just, and correct. In Hinduism, this often amounts to traditional behavior consistent with one's status in life. In Buddhism, it refers to the corpus of Buddhist teachings and is usually capitalized.

dharmachakra

The metaphorical "Wheel of Dharma," also translated as the "Wheel of the Law," which Buddha set in motion with his First Sermon.

Dikpala

A god who guards one of the eight directions. Also found in Japan, where they are called shitenno.
Parshvanatha T. (Khajuraho), To-ji T. (Japan), Todai-ji T. (Japan)

Durga

A fierce form of Devi who was created by all the other gods and given their combined powers; usually posed as "Mahishasuramardini," slayer of the buffalo demon Mahisha. Her vahana is the lion.
Ambika Mata T. (Jagat), Decapitation scene (Mamallapuram, Draupadi Ratha), Decapitation scene (Mamallapuram, Varaha cave temple), Durga T. (Aihole), Hoysaleshvara T. (Halebid), Lion (Mamallapuram), Mallikarjuna T. (Pattadakal), Mandor Gardens, Trimurti (Birla Museum), Virupaksha T. (Pattadakal)

dvarapala

A guardian figure placed on each side of the shrine doorway. Hoysaleshvara T. (Halebid), Greek Warrior (Bharhut)

elevation

A vertical projection (such as a silhouette) of a building. See also: plan.

footprint

An aniconic representation of a deity. Buddha (Sanchi), Vishnu, Chennakeshava T. (Belur)

fractal

(noun and adjective) A geometric form, such as a snowflake, that repeats itself at different levels of size.
Kandariya Mahadeva T., Ambika Mata T. (Jagat), Dharmaraja Ratha (Mamallapuram)

Gajalakshmi

The goddess Lakshmi, usually seated, being lustrated (anointed with water) by two elephants. A symbol of prosperity.
Ratnagiri, Parashurameshvara T. (Bhubaneshwar), Bharhut (Indian Museum)

gajasimha

(Literally, "elephant-lion.") A decorative motif that shows a lion rearing over or attacking a kneeling elephant; believed to symbolize the triumph of Hinduism over Buddhism.
Konarak, Ratnagiri, Mukteshvara T. (Bhubaneshwar)

ganas

Dwarf followers of Shiva, associated with the god, his dvarapalas, and his son Ganesh (whose name means "Lord of the Ganas.") The origin and meaning of the ganas is obscure, but somehow links Shiva to indigenous, pre-Aryan cult. Originally the ganas seem to have been nature-spirits, in which capacity they appear in association with Ganga and other emblems of fertility.

Gandhara

An ancient kingdom (1st century BC - 7th century AD) in what is now northern Pakistan and Afghanistan, important in the early centuries AD as the conduit of Roman stylistic influence in Buddhist sculpture.
Maitreya (Delhi NM), Maitreya (Bharat Kala Bhavan), Bodhisattva (Bharat Kala Bhavan), Emaciated Buddha (Bharat Kala Bhavan), Buddha (Tokyo NM) and following pages, Column of Heliodorus (Besnagar)

gandharvas

(plural. The singular is gandharva.) "Fragrances," celestial musicians and husbands of the apsarasas.
Ambika Mata T. (Jagat),

Ganesh

(also Ganesha), the elephant-headed god who overcomes all obstacles with the force of an elephant crashing through the jungle. The son of Parvati, Ganesh removes every difficulty and is invoked at the start of any new enterprise. His attributes include an elephant goad, his broken-off tusk that he used as a pen to write the Mahabharata, a lasso, and a bowl of sweets. He rides a mouse or rat and is a jolly, good-natured god.
Harihara Temple 2 (Osian), Dancing, Keshava T. (Somnathpur), Hoysaleshvara T. (Halebid), Vijayanagara, Human-headed, Parashurameshvara T. (Bhubaneshwar)

Ganga

A goddess, the personified river Ganges, riding on a makara. An emblem of fertility and purification, often paired with Yamuna, the personification of the river Jumna, who rides a tortoise.
Delhi NM, Varaha Cave (Udayagiri, MP), Cave 21 (Ellora), Ratnagiri

Ganges

The most sacred river in India, flowing down from heaven through Shiva's hair in the high Himalayas and from thence east across India to the sea. To bathe in the Ganges river is to wash away all the sins of one's past lives.
at Varanasi, floods the Earth linga (Ekambareshvara Temple)

garbhagriha

"Womb chamber," the sanctuary of an Indian temple.
Parts of a North Indian Temple

Garuda

A fierce bird of prey, the mount of Vishnu, variously described as an eagle, hawk, or kite. Garuda is the enemy of all snakes, perhaps reflecting a conflict between Vaishnava and indigenous chthonic cults.
Alagarkoil gopura (Madurai), Alagarkoil mandapa (Madurai), Badami (Cave 3), Column of Heliodorus (Besnagar), Durga T. (Aihole), fighting the snakes (Hoysaleshvara T., Halebid), Harihara T. #2 (Osian), Keshava T. (Somnathpur), Lakshmi Dancing on Garuda (Delhi NM), Standing Garuda (Gujarat, 11th century),

gavaksha

See chandrashala

ghat

A set of steps leading down to water.
Varanasi (1), Varanasi (2), Gadi Sagar (Jaisalmer)

gopura

The gateway tower of a South Indian temple.
Alagarkoil (Madurai), Ekambareshvara Temple (Kanchipuram), Kapaleshvara Temple (Madras), Minakshi Temple (Madurai), Ranganatha Temple (Srirangam), construction (Srirangam), Shwetha Varahaswami Temple (Mysore)

griffin

A mythical animal having the head of an eagle and the body of a lion.
Sanchi

Hanuman

The monkey king, faithful ally of Rama in the Ramayana.
Hanuman in the whale (Ranganatha T., Srirangam), Votive image (Ranganatha T., Srirangam), Alagarkoil mandapa (Madurai), birthplace (Vijayanagara), fighting (Vijayanagara), stele (Vijayanagara)

Harihara

Vishnu ("hari") and Shiva ("hara"), combined half-and-half into one deity.
Bharat Kala Bhavan, Durga T. (Aihole), Harihara Temple 3 (Osian), Hoysaleshvara T. (Halebid), Virupaksha T. - example 1 (Pattadakal), Virupaksha T. - example 2 (Pattadakal)

harmika

A symbolic stone fence which rests on the dome of a stupa and encloses the spire. Its symbolism derives from the wooden enclosure surrounding a tree shrine. See Parts of a Stupa.

Hayagriva

(literally, "horse-neck.") A fierce form of Avalokiteshvara, usually portrayed as a dwarf with a symbolic horse-head attached to his coiffure.
Monastery 1 (Ratnagiri)

iconography

The pose, gestures, attributes, and symbols that serve to identify an image. For example, the iconography of Shiva Nataraja usually includes a dance pose with one leg lifted and the other standing on a dwarf; an arm gesture pointing to his lifted foot; a small drum and firepot held in the hand; and a hand gesture with palm extended meaning "fear not."

Indra

A sky god, king of the gods in Vedic times who was later "demoted" to a dikpala as guardian of the eastern direction. His primary attribute is the vajra (thunderbolt). He rides an elephant, symbolic of thunderclouds and royal power. Indra is often paired with Brahma in Buddhist iconography.
Parshvanatha T. (Khajuraho), Sanchi, Keshava T., Somnathpur

Ishana

An obscure dikpala, guardian of the NE direction. His name means, simply, "the Lord." He holds a trident and bowl.
Parshvanatha T. (Khajuraho)

jagamohan

The entrance hall of a South Indian temple, just in front of the sanctuary.
Surya T. (Konarak)

jagati

The platform, plinth, or terrace (these words are practically synonymous when speaking of Indian temples) on which a temple rests.

Jain [j-EYE-n]

(adjective, from noun Jina [JHEE-nuh], "conqueror".) A religion founded by Mahavira in the 6th-5th century BC. Jainism shares some features of Buddhism, such as avoidance of harm to living things, and is greatly concerned with ritual purity. Principal worship is directed towards 24 saviors or tirthankaras.
Adinath T. (Ranakpur), Osian T., Parshvanatha T. (Khajuraho)

jali

A stone lattice or pierced screen.
Tomb of Humayun [1] (Delhi), Tomb of Humayun [2] (Delhi), Fatehpur Sikri, Meherangarh Fort (Jodhpur)

jataka

A story of Buddha's previous incarnations as a virtuous animal or human being. These were often adapted from earlier, non-Buddhist sources.
depicted at Sanchi, Shyama (Sanchi), Chhaddanta (Sanchi), Vessantara (Sanchi), Mahakapi (Bharhut), Ruru (Bharhut)

jharoka

A Mughal projecting balcony with a domed or vaulted roof.
Royal Palace (Amber), Zenana entrance (Fatehpur Sikri), Meherangarh Fort (Jodhpur)

kalasha

A water-jar or pot which crowns the spire of some temples. It may also be used as a column base, or be held as an attribute by certain gods.
Parts of a North Indian Temple, Model column (Nalanda)

Kali

A terrifying form of Devi. Goddess of the cremation grounds and sometime consort of Shiva.
Kali and Chamunda, Hoysaleshvara T. (Halebid), Modern shrine (Rajgir)

Kama

The god of love.
Parshvanatha T. (Khajuraho)

Kamakshi

"Wanton-eyed," a name of Parvati.
Ekambareshvara Temple

karma

(literally, "deed.") The merit or demerit accruing from a person's good or bad deeds in life. This causes the person to be reincarnated, and determines his circumstances in the next life.
belief in karma, effect of good karma

Karttikeya

Also known as Skanda, Karttikeya is a son of Shiva and Parvati who was foster-nursed by the Pleiades. Karttikeya is the god of battle. He has six heads, numerous attributes, and rides a peacock.
Bharat Kala Bhavan, Hucchimalli Temple (7th century, Aihole), Kapaleshvara Temple (Madras), Somaskanda (Rajaraja museum, Thanjavur), Parashurameshvara T. (Bhubaneshwar)

kinnaras

(plural. The singular is kinnara.) Celestial musicians, possibly related to the gandharvas. They have the heads of men and the bodies of birds or horses.
Ambika Mata T. (Jagat), Sanchi (1), Sanchi (2), Bharhut, Temple 2 (Nalanda)

kirttimukha

"The Devourer," a monster mask. This protective motif in Indian temples is derived from the much earlier Chinese t'ao-t'ieh. In India, the monster often has the features of a horned lion.
Osian, Ambika Mata T. (Jagat), Shravanabelgola (Karnataka), Hoysala emblem (Belur)

Krishna

An avatar of Vishnu. See avatar.

Kubera

One of the dikpalas. Kubera is king of the yakshas and god of wealth (buried treasure). His attributes include a mongoose, club, pomegranite, water jar, and money pouch.
Ambika Mata T. (Jagat), Parshvanatha T. (Khajuraho), Ajanta (Cave 2), Ratnagiri

Lakshmi

Goddess of prosperity, originally a water goddess. Consort of Vishnu. Often portrayed sitting or standing on a lotus while being lustrated (showered with water) by elephants. Such a scene symbolizes the rain clouds bringing water and life to the land. Another popular iconographic image pairs her with Sarasvati, accompanying Vishnu.
Delhi NM, with Sarasvati and Vishnu (delhi NM), Devi Jagadambi T. (Khajuraho), Lakshmana T. (Khajuraho), Stupa 2 balustrade (Sanchi), lustration (east gate, Sanchi), lustration (south gate, Sanchi), seated (Rajaraja museum, Thanjavur), dancing, Keshava T. (Somnathpur)

lamp tower

A tall pillar in front of some Indian temples. An oil lamp was mounted at the top of the pillar, where it would be lit each night by a boy shimmying up the pillar. Nandi T. (Bangalore), Keshava T. (Somnathpur), Chennakeshvara T. (Belur)

linga, also lingam

A phallus, the aniconic representation of Shiva. The linga is most often unadorned, but sometimes has secondary carvings. It is usually set into a circular base representing the female yoni, and is worshiped by oblations of milk and water.
Ekamukha (Delhi NM), Ekamukha (Udayagiri), Linga Shrine (Vijayanagara), Worship Scene (Bhubaneshwar), Sahasra Linga (Bhubaneshwar), Topiary Linga (Bhubaneshwar)

Mahabharata

One of India's two great national epics. The enormous composition – at 100,000 stanzas, it is by far the longest poem in the world – is traditionally assigned to Vyasa as author. The oldest parts (orally composed) may date to the 4th or 3d century BC, and it was compiled into something like its final form c. 400 AD. The poem deals with a great war, possibly historical, in the first half of the first millenium BC, between two related clans, the Pandavas and the Kauravas. To this core is added an amazing variety of additional material, including the Bhagavad Gita, perhaps India's greatest religious poem, an exhortation of Krishna to Arjuna before the climactic battle.

mahal

A Mughal palace, pavillion, or hall.

Mahavira

The founder of the Jain religion.

Maitreya

The Buddha of the future.
Gandhara (Delhi NM), Ahicchattra (Delhi NM), Bharat Kala Bhavan, Nepal, 12th century

makara

A sea-monster, with a crocodile body and various other fanciful parts. Vehicle of Ganga and Varuna.
Ganga (Delhi NM), Fatehpur Sikri, Adinath T. (Ranakpur), Ellora (Cave 21), Bharhut

mandala

A mystical diagram of the cosmos. Mandalas are a type of yantra.

mandapa

A columned hall in a temple.
Parts of a North Indian Temple

mantra

A mystical verbal formula used in ritual or meditation. cf yantra.

Mara

A demon who tempted Buddha to try to prevent his enlightenment.
Sanchi (west gate), Sanchi (north gate)

mardana

A Mughal courtyard, as at Fatehpur Sikri

mausoleum

A building which is dedicated to the memory of a deceased person and contains his or her tomb. Often confused with memorial, monument, and cenotaph. Memorials are dedicated to the memory of the deceased, but can be any kind of structure and do not contain a burial (eg, the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, DC). Monuments honor specific events or a particular person but do not have funerary connotations (eg, the Washington Monument in Washington, DC). A cenotaph is literally an empty tomb: either a mausoleum without a burial, or (Islamic) a substitute grave marker placed one or two floors above the actual burial.

Maya

The name of Buddha's mother.

mihrab

A niche in the wall inside a mosque, which indicates the direction of prayer (towards Mecca). In India the mihrab is in the west wall.

mimbar

The pulpit in a mosque. It is shaped as a right-angled triangle, where the hypotenuse is a flight of stairs leading up to the platform.

Minakshi

"Fish Eyed," the name of a local goddess and legendary Pandya queen of Madurai. Born with three breasts, the goddess lost her third breast when she saw Shiva on the battlefield. Their subsequent marriage is celebrated nightly at their temple in Madurai.

minar

A tall, slender Islamic tower. Usually called a minaret in English. Originally, the tower of a light-house.

mithuna

An embracing couple. Mithunas are a common motif on the walls of Indian temples, where they are thought to exert an influence which is both auspicious and magical/protective.
Kandariya Mahadeva T. (Khajuraho), Surya T. (Konarak)

Mohini

A female incarnation of Vishnu, in which he/she became the consort of Lord Shiva.
Chennakeshava T. (Belur), Delhi NM, Sri Dalsa Devi T. (Goa)

monolith (noun), monolithic (adjective)

(Literally, "one stone.") A structure, such as a shrine or temple, which has been excavated as a unit from a surrounding matrix or outcropping of rock.
Ellora, Mamallapuram

mosque

A Muslim place of worship. Congregational mosques for public worship are called Jami Masjid ("Friday Mosques"). Two important parts of a mosque are the mihrab (prayer niche) and the mimbar (pulpit).
Srirangapatnam, Fatehpur Sikri

mudra

A symbolic hand-position, used when depicting a divinity. Common mudras include –

anjali (palms together as if praying: submission, adoration)

abhaya (palm out, fingers pointing up: "fear not")

bhumisparsha (fingertips touching the earth: Buddha calling the earth to witness his steadfastness)

dharmachakra (fingers intertwined: preaching)

dhyana (palms cupped in lap: meditation)

varada (palm out, fingers down: giving a blessing)

vitarka (palm out, thumb and forefinger touching in "OK" sign: teaching)

Mughal [MOO-gull]

(also Mogul [MOE-gull].) A dynasty of Muslim conquerors in northern and central India between 1526 and 1748. The best-known Mughal emperors are Babur (1483-1526-1530), who founded the dynasty; his grandson Akbar (1542-1556-1605), who expanded and consolidated the empire; and Akbar's grandson Shah Jahan (1592-1666, ruled 1628-1658), who built the Taj Mahal.
Mughal dynasty .

murti

A particular form or representation of a god, for example, Shiva Nataraja. A murti is the basic arrangement of iconographic elements – the "pose" – that tells the story and communicates the meaning and identity of an image.

naga

The snake (cobra), worshiped as a nature deity in early India. Snakes are associated with water, the underground, and fertility. They were adopted into Hinduism as emblems of Shiva (perhaps reflecting Shiva's own origins from earlier nature cult), and were adopted into Buddhism as protectors of Buddha. They sometimes fight, and sometimes assist, Vishnu and his avatars. Vishnu, in his role as creator, rests on the cosmic serpent Shesha. In his Varaha incarnation, Vishnu rescues Bhu Devi from a snake demon who had abducted her beneath the ocean.
Balarama with hood (Parshvanatha T., Khajuraho), ceiling medallion (Aihole), Durga attribute (Ambika Mata T., Jagat), entwined naga pair (Chennakeshava T., Belur), with Gommateshvara, Garuda rondel (Osian), with Garuda (Hoysaleshvara T., Halebid), with Krishna (Delhi NM), with Kubera (Ambika Mata T., Jagat), Mucalinda (Sanchi), Naga Queens (Devi Jagadambi T., Khajuraho), Snake Charmer, Snake Shrine (Bangalore), with Varaha (Udayagiri),

Nandi

A bull, Shiva's vahana.
Cave 15 (Ellora), Hoysaleshvara T. (Halebid), Ladkhan T. (Aihole), Minakshi T. (Madurai), Nandi monolith (Mysore), Nandi T. (Bangalore), Pancha Rathas (Mamallapuram), Three-headed (Hampi), Virupaksha T. (Pattadakal), Thousand-Pillared T. (Hanamkonda)

nandipada

A trident-like form above a circle. In Buddhism, the circle symbolizes the Buddhist Dharma, and the trident symbolizes the triratna, or "Three Precious Jewels" – Buddha, Dharma, and Samgha (the community of monks). The nandipada also appears in Jain art, being older than either faith.
Sanchi (1), Sanchi (2), Udayagiri (Jain), Bharhut (Buddhist)

Nataraja

Shiva as Lord of the Dance.
Delhi NM and Bharat Kala Bhavan, Government museum, Madras (example 1, example 2, example 3), Rajaraja museum (Thanjavur), Minakshi T., Madurai (example 1, example 2)

Nayaka

"Governor," the title of those who ruled states or provinces under the overlordship of the Vijayanagara kings. After the fall of Vijayanagara, the Nayakas converted their domains into independent kingdoms ruled by themselves.

nidhi

Any of the nine symbolic "treasures" (auspicious objects) of Kubera, relating generally to good fortune and the bounty of the earth. Nidhis appear in aniconic form, and may also be personified as pot-bellied dwarfs like the ganas.
Virupaksha T. (Pattadakal)

Nila

An elephant demon, friend of Andhaka, who was slain during the battle with Shiva. Shiva is often depicted, in art, as dancing underneath the butchered hide of the elephant, and sometimes on the elephant's head (Shiva Gajasamharara).
Chennakeshava T. (Belur), Rajaraja museum

Nirriti

One of the more obscure dikpalas. Nirriti is a fierce form of Shiva. He holds a human head.
Ajit Singh Memorial (Mandor Gardens, Jodhpur), Parshvanatha T. (Khajuraho)

offering channel

A spout cut into the wall of a shrine, that carries the runoff of liquid offerings from inside the shrine to the outside.
Brihadeshvara T. (Thanjavur), Ambika Mata T. (Jagat), Keshava T., Somnathpur

Pallava

A 6th - 9th century dynasty in Southern India. See the site index for page references to Pallava cities and monuments.

Parashurama

see avatar.

Parshvanath

The twenty-third Jain tirthankara.

Parvati

(also Uma). Daughter of the Himalayas and consort of Shiva. In Madurai, known as Minakshi.
Marriage of Shiva and Parvati (Bharat Kala Bhavan), Marriage of Shiva and Parvati (Rajaraja museum, Thanjavur), standing (Rajaraja museum), seated (Rajaraja museum)

peacock

An animal associated with Shiva and Parvati, especially as the vehicle of their son, Karttikeya.

plan

A horizontal projection (such as a floor plan) of a building. See also: elevation.

quarrying

The process of cutting stone blocks out of their surrounding matrix of rock. Quarrying is one of three ways to obtain stone for building or sculpture. Another way is reuse, taking the stone from an already existing structure. The third way is excavation, taking away stone from the matrix and using what is left in place.
Bhopal, Hampi, and in Greece.

Rajput

A line of Hindu rulers in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, from before the Muslim invasions until Independence in the 20th century.
Rajput dynasty

Rama

see avatar.

Ramayana

One of India's two great national epics, the Ramayana deals with the exile of Prince Rama of Ayodhya, the abduction of his wife Sita, and his subsequent efforts to recover both wife and kingdom. Its authorship is traditionally ascribed to Valmiki. The oldest parts of the poem (orally composed) date perhaps to the 4th or 3d century BC, and it was first written down sometime between 200 BC and 200 AD.

ratha ("chariot")

[1] A temple cart (portable shrine), conceived of as the chariot of the deity.
Banashankari T. (Karnataka), Sri Dalsa Devi T. (Goa)

[2] A fixed shrine, carved of stone, which resembles a temple cart.
Pancha Rathas (Mamallapuram), Vitthala T. (Vijayanagara), Surya T. (Konarak)

[3] A projection from the base of a temple. Parts of an East Indian Temple

Sanskrit

The classical religious and literary language of Aryan India. Important categories of Sanskrit literature include the Vedas (early religious poetry; Rig Veda, c. 1200 BC), Upanishads (Hindu philosophy, c.700 BC), Epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata, c. 300 BC), Puranas (Hindu myths, the earliest c. 300 AD), and secular literature (Kalidasa, 5th century AD playwright).

saptamatrikas

The "Seven Mothers," fierce forms of Devi. Six are associated with male gods: Brahmani (Brahma), Maheshvari (Shiva), Kaumari (Skanda), Vaishnavi (Vishnu), Varahi (Varaha, the boar incarnation of Vishnu), and Indrani (Indra). The seventh is Chamunda.
Chamunda (Ambika Mata T., Jagat), Kaumari (Kandariya Mahadeva T., Khajuraho), Vaishnavi (Ambika Mata T., Jagat), Maheshvari (Madras), Complete Series (Parashurameshvara T., Bhubaneshwar)

Sarasvati

Brahma's consort, the goddess of poetry and music. Her attributes include a vina, palm-leaf book, and Brahma's goose.
Sasbahu T. (Nagda), Ambika Mata T. (Jagat), Keshava T., Somnathpur, Hoysaleshvara T. (Halebid), seated (Halebid)

shakti

The female aspect of a god, representing the god's creative energy.
Shiva Ardhanarishvara (City Palace, Jaipur), Chaunsath Yogini T. (Hirapur)

shala

A barrel-shaped vault or roof, originally derived from thatch and wood roof construction. The term applies to the barrel vaults of chaitya halls and the barrel roofs covering some temples and shrines. It also applies to the barrel-shaped miniature roof elements that decorate the towers of many shrines and temples in south India. See also: chandrashala.

shalabhanjika

A fertility emblem, expressed as the pose of a yakshi who raises her arm to grasp the branch of a tree, while her opposite leg is cocked on the ball of one foot. Pre-Aryan belief held that a woman could make a tree fruitful by grasping its branches in this way. Sometimes the yakshi holds a cross-legged instead of a cocked-leg posture, and sometimes the figure is male instead of female. Technically, the term shalabhanjika should be reserved for one who grasps the shal tree in this way, different terms being used for those who grasp other kinds of trees, lotus buds, vines, etc.
East Gate (Sanchi), Draupadi Ratha (Mamallapuram), Bharhut

Shantinath

The sixteenth Jain tirthankara.

Shesha

See Ananta.

shikhara

"Mountain peak," the tower of a North Indian temple. Placed above the temple sanctuary, it represents the cosmic mountain, Mount Meru, which is located at the center of the world. In South Indian temples, the term shikhara refers only to the capping element, a small octagonal-shaped dome, at the top of the pyramidal tower.
Parts of a North Indian Temple

Shiva (noun), Shaiva (adjective)

One of three great gods in India, the others being Vishnu and Devi. Shiva's attributes in North India are the trident and snake; in the South, an antelope and axe. His mount is the bull, Nandi. Shiva is a god of the wild mountains and forests. He is the god of outsiders, yogis, wandering ascetics, and hermits, who do not fit into organized society. His wife is Parvati, with whom he lives in the Himalayas. Many elements of Shiva derive from indigenous, pre-Aryan, cult.
Ambika Mata T. (Jagat), Andhaka, Ardhanarishvara, Badami (Cave 1), Bhairava, Bhikshatana, Dakshinamurti, Durga T. (Aihole), Ellora (Cave 21), five-headed (Minakshi T., Madurai), Harihara, Hoysaleshvara T. [1] (Halebid), Hoysaleshvara T. [2] (Halebid), Hoysaleshvara T. [3] (Halebid), linga, Nandi, Nataraja, Ravana Phadi T. (Aihole), Sadashiva (Elephanta), Sadashiva (Prince of Wales Museum), Sasbahu T. (Nagda), unfinished temple (Bhojpur), Virabadhra, Virupaksha T. (Pattadakal), as young ascetic (Kailasanatha T., Kanchipuram), as young ascetic (Virupaksha T., Pattadakal), subduing Ravana (Virupaksha T., Pattadakal), one-legged (Chaunsath Yogini T., Hirapur)

Shiva and Parvati

The representation of Shiva and Parvati together as husband and wife. When Skanda is also shown, the group is known as Somaskanda.
Marriage of Shiva and Parvati (Pratihara, 10th century), Shiva and Uma (Aihole, 7th century), Somaskanda (Shore Temple at Mamallapuram, 8th century)

Skanda

see Karttikeya.

structural (adjective)

A structural temple or shrine is one that was built in the usual way, with blocks of cut stone, unlike monolithic buildings which were carved as a single unit from the rock.

stupa

Originally, a Buddhist reliquary mound. However, many stupas do not contain actual relics, and so the term has come to be applied to any Buddhist shrine or monument having similar form and connotation.
Parts of a Stupa, Sanchi and following pages

surasundari

Beautiful maidens, a frequent motif on temple walls. They represent musicians, dancers, handmaidens, and other ladies of the clestial court.
City Palace Museum (Udaipur), Ambika Mata T. [1] (Jagat), Ambika Mata T. [2] (Jagat), from Khajuraho (Bharat Kala Bhavan), from Rajasthan (Delhi NM), Chennakeshava T. (Belur), Surya T. (Konarak), and many other pages

Surya

The sun god. He holds a lotus in either hand, and drives a chariot pulled by seven horses representing the seven days of the week. He invariably wears boots – an iconography, unique to this god, that derives ultimately from Iran.
Delhi NM (originally from Konarak), Virupaksha T. (Pattadakal), Surya T. (Konarak)

Tantra (noun); Tantric (adjective)

An unorthodox form of Hindu worship, involving acts and substances which are normally forbidden.

Tara

The Vajrayana Buddhist goddess of compassion, born from the tears of Avalokiteshvara. Often paired with Bhrikuti (wisdom) on statues of Avalokiteshvara. White Tara is the peaceful form of this goddess; Green Tara is the fierce form.
White Tara (17th century), standing (Ratnagiri), seated (Ratnagiri), seated, Pala (Bihar), Java (9th-10th century), Vajra Tara

telamon

A carved figure that seems to be holding up part of a building. In India and Southeast Asia, these are squatting dwarves; in Greece, they are classical Atlases or caryatids.
Lakshmana T. (Khajuraho), Mukteshvara T. (Bhubaneshwar)

tirthankara [teer-TAHNK-uh-ruh]

(also cap.) A savior in the Jain religion. The word means "ford maker," one who has found the way to cross over into spiritual perfection. There are 24 Jain tirthankaras. The 24th and last, Mahavira (traditional dates, 599-527 BC), is a historical figure, an older contemporary of Buddha, and the founder of Jainism. The 23d, Parshvanath, may have lived in the 8th century BC and founded a precursor sect whose doctrines were adopted by Mahavira. The previous 22 saviors, including the first, Adinath, are not historical.

Jain Iconography

Adinath - the first tirthankara, who tought men the Jain religion and the arts of civilization. His symbol is the bull.
Shravanabelgola

Chandraprabha - the 8th tirthankara, his symbol is the moon.
Shravanabelgola

Gommateshvara - the son of Adinath, the first tirthankara, Gommateshvara is a saint rather than a tirthankara.
Badami (Cave 4), Shravanabelgola colossus

Mahavira - the last (24th) tirthankara, the historical founder of the Jain religion. His career parallels the Buddha in many respects. His symbol is the lion.
Karnataka (12th century), Ellora (Cave 32, 9th century)

Neminath - the 22d tirthankara, associated with Krishna. His symbol is a conch shell.
Shravanabelgola

Parshvanath - the 23d tirthankara, shown protected by a multi-headed cobra.
Badami (Cave 4), North India (1150), Parshvanatha T. (Khajuraho),

Shantinath - "Lord Peace," the 16th tirthankara. His symbol is an antelope or deer.
Khajuraho, Sind (1238), Shravanabelgola

torana

A free-standing ceremonial gateway; originally, a gateway with posts and crosspieces, sometimes elaborately decorated and carved, in front of a Buddhist stupa. Surviving toranas are made of stone, in imitation of earlier wooden architecture.
Stupa 3, south face (Sanchi), and many other Sanchi pages; Mukteshvara T. (Bhubaneshwar)

triad statues

In Buddhist art, a compositional grouping in which the Buddha is flanked by two Bodhisattvas.
Shakyamuni triad (Ratnagiri)

tribhanga

A standing posture in which the figure is oppositely curved at waist and neck to form a gentle "S" shape.

trishula

Shiva's trident.

Trivikrama