Jump to content

Hasashen Gaia

Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
Hasashen Gaia
scientific hypothesis (en) Fassara
Nazarin zama na duniya ya dogara ne akan ƙarin sani game da yanayin duniya, kamar yadda duniya ita ce kawai duniyar da aka sani a halin yanzu don ɗaukar rayuwa ( The Blue Marble, 1972 Apollo 17 Hoto).

Hasashen Gaia / / ˈɡaɪ.ə / ), wanda kuma aka sani da ka'idar Gaia, Gaia paradigm, ko ka'idar Gaia, ta ba da shawarar cewa rayayyun halittu suna yin hulɗa tare da kewayen su a cikin ƙasa don samar da tsarin haɗaɗɗiya da sarrafa kai wanda ke taimakawa wajen kiyayewa da dawwamar yanayin rayuwa a cikin duniyar.

Masanin kimiyyar James Lovelock ne ya tsara ra'ayin Gaia [1] kuma masanin ilimin halittu Lynn Margulis ne ya haɓaka shi a cikin shekarun 1970s. [2] Bayan shawarar da maƙwabcinsa, marubucin littafin William Golding ya ba da sunan ra'ayin bayan Gaia, allahn farko wanda wani lokacin ana nuna shi a matsayin Duniya a cikin tatsuniyoyin Helenawa. A shekara ta 2006, Geological Society of London ta ba Lovelock lambar yabo ta Wollaston a wani bangare saboda aikinsa a kan ra'ayin Gaia.[3]

Batutuwan da suka shafi ra'ayin Gaia sun haɗa da yadda biosphere da juyin halitta na kwayoyin halitta ke shafar kwanciyar hankali na zafin jiki na duniya, salinity na ruwa teku, matakan iskar oxygen na yanayi, kula da hydrosphere, da sauran masu canjin muhalli waɗanda ke shafar zama na Duniya.

Bayani na gaba ɗaya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Hasashen Gaia yana jayayya cewa kwayoyin halitta suna haɓaka tare da yanayin su. Wato, kwayoyin halitta suna yin tasiri a kan kwayoyin halitta, ba kawai yanayin halittu ba, kuma a cikin haɗin gwiwa yanayin halittu yana tasiri biota ta hanyar wani nau'i na tsarin Darwiniyanci, wanda zai iya nuna juyin halitta na haɗin gwiwa mai canza yanayin rayuwa. A cikin 1995, Lovelock ya ba da shaida game da wannan dangantaka ta biotic-abiotic a cikin haɓakarsa na biyu na zato a cikin littafin Ages of Gaia . Wannan ka'idar ta faɗi juyin halitta daga duniyar farkon ƙwayoyin ƙauna masu ƙauna da ƙwayoyin methanogenic zuwa yanayin da ke da wadatar oxygen, wato, yanayin yau, wanda muka sani shine Holocene kuma wannan yanayi ne mai tallafi na rayuwa mai rikitarwa fiye da lokutan farko. Kamar yadda kowane nau'i na kowane nau'i ko wasu tsarin ke bibiyar sha'awar kansu, ayyukansu na haɗin gwiwa na iya yin tasiri mai tasiri akan kwayoyin halitta da kwayoyin halitta. Abokan adawa na wannan ra'ayi wani lokaci yana yin la'akari da misalan abubuwan da suka haifar da canji mai ban mamaki maimakon daidaita daidaito, kamar jujjuyawar yanayin duniya daga yanayin ragewa zuwa yanayin oxygen mai arziki a ƙarshen Archaean da farkon lokacin Proterozoic . [ abubuwan da ake bukata ]

Siffofin da ba a yarda da su ba na ra'ayin Gaia suna da'awar cewa ana kawo canje-canje a cikin biosphere ta hanyar daidaitawar halittu masu rai da kuma kula da waɗannan yanayin ta hanyar homeostasis. A wasu nau'ikan Gaia Hypothosis, duk siffofin rayuwa ana ɗaukar su ɓangare na duniyar da ake kira Gaia. A cikin wannan ra'ayi, yanayi, teku da ɓawon ƙasa za su kasance sakamakon tsoma baki da Gaia ta yi ta hanyar bambancin halittu masu rai.

Daga cikin abubuwan da suka gabata na hasashen Gaia akwai masana kimiyya na Rasha kamar Piotr Alekseevich Kropotkin (1842-1921), Rafail Vasil'evich Rizpolozhensky (1862 – c. 1922 ), Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863-1945), da Vladimir Alexandrovich Kostitzin (1886-1963).

Tsarin Gaia ya kasance tasiri a kan zurfin yunkurin muhalli.[4]

Bayani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Maganar Gaia ta ruwa cewa Duniya tsarin rikitarwa ne mai sarrafa kansa wanda ya shafi biosphere, yanayi, hydrospheres da pedosphere, wanda aka haɗa shi sosai a matsayin tsarin juyin halitta. Tunanin ya yi jayayya cewa wannan tsarin gaba ɗaya, wanda ake kira Gaia, yana neman yanayin jiki da sinadarai mafi kyau ga rayuwar zamani.[5]

Gaia ta samo asali ne ta hanyar tsarin ra'ayoyi cybernetic wanda ke aiki da biota, wanda ke haifar da daidaitaccen yanayin zama a cikin cikakken gida. Matakai da yawa a saman duniya, masu mahimmanci ga yanayin rayuwa, sun dogara da hulɗar siffofin rayuwa, musamman microorganisms, tare da abubuwa marasa rai. Wadannan matakai sun kafa tsarin kula da duniya wanda ke tsara zafin jiki na duniya, abun da ke cikin yanayi da salinity na teku, wanda ke da ikon Yanayin yanayi yanayin yanayin duniya na tsarin duniya.

An lura da kasancewar homeostasis na duniya wanda ya rinjayi siffofin rayuwa a baya a fagen Biogeochemistry, kuma ana binciken shi a wasu fannoni kamar kimiyyar tsarin duniya. Asalin ra'ayin Gaia ya dogara ne akan kimantawa cewa ana bin irin wannan ma'auni na gida tare da burin kiyaye yanayin da ya fi dacewa don rayuwa, koda kuwa abubuwan da suka faru a duniya ko na waje suna barazana ga su.[5]

Gudanar da zafin jiki na duniya

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Hotunan Palaeotemperature na Rob Rohde

Tun lokacin da rayuwa ta Rana a Duniya, makamashi da Sun ta bayar ya karu da kashi 25-30%; [6] duk da haka, zafin jiki na duniya ya kasance a cikin matakan zama, ya kai ga ƙananan da manyan iyakoki. Lovelock ya kuma yi la'akari da cewa methanogens ya samar da matakan methane a farkon yanayi, yana ba da yanayin da ya yi kama da wanda aka samu a cikin hayaki na man fetur, mai kama da wasu fannoni ga yanayi a kan Titan. Wannan, ya ba da shawarar, ya taimaka wajen tantance hasken ultraviolet har sai an kafa layin ozone, yana riƙe da digiri na homeostasis. Koyaya, binciken Snowball Earth ya ba da shawarar cewa "tsinkaye na oxygen" da rage matakan methane sun haifar, a lokacin Huronian, Sturtian da Marinoan / Varanger Ice Ages, zuwa duniyar da kusan ta zama "snowball". Wadannan lokutan shaida ne game da ikon pre Phanerozoic biosphere don cikakken sarrafa kansa.

Gudanar da iskar gas mai guba CO2, wanda aka bayyana a ƙasa, yana taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen kula da zafin jiki na Duniya a cikin iyakokin zama.

Hasashen CLAW, wanda aka yi wahayi daga hasashen Gaia, yana ba da shawarar madaidaicin amsawa wanda ke aiki tsakanin yanayin halittun teku da yanayin duniya . [7] Hasashen yana ba da shawara musamman cewa phytoplankton na musamman waɗanda ke samar da dimethyl sulfide suna amsawa ga bambance-bambance a cikin tilasta yanayi, kuma waɗannan martanin suna haifar da madauki mara kyau wanda ke aiki don daidaita yanayin yanayin duniya .

A halin yanzu karuwar yawan mutane da tasirin muhalli na ayyukanta, kamar ninkawar iskar gas na iya haifar da mummunan ra'ayoyi a cikin muhalli don zama kyakkyawan ra'ayi. Lovelock ya bayyana cewa wannan na iya kawo gagarumin dumamar yanayi, amma tun daga lokacin ya bayyana cewa tasirin zai iya faruwa a hankali.[5]

Daidaitawar Daisyworld

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Shirye-shiryen daga daidaitattun baƙar fata da fari na Daisyworld

Dangane da zargi cewa ra'ayin Gaia da alama yana buƙatar Zaɓin rukuni mara yiwuwa da hadin kai tsakanin kwayoyin halitta, James Lovelock da Andrew Watson sun haɓaka samfurin lissafi, Daisyworld, wanda gasa ta muhalli ta kafa tsarin zafin duniya.[8]

daisy yana nazarin kasafin Kudin makamashi na duniya da ke cike da nau'ikan shuke-shuke daban-daban guda biyu, baƙar fata da fararen daisies, waɗanda ake zaton suna da wani ɓangare mai mahimmanci na farfajiya. Launi na daisies yana rinjayar albedo na duniyar ta yadda baƙar fata ke shawo kan haske da dumi duniya, yayin da fararen daisies ke nuna haske da sanyaya duniya. Ana zaton baƙar fata daisies suna girma kuma suna haifuwa mafi kyau a ƙananan zafin jiki, yayin da ake zaton fararen daisies suna bunƙasa mafi kyau a mafi girman zafin jiki. Yayin da zafin jiki ke tashi kusa da darajar fararen daisies kamar, fararen daisy suna samar da baƙar fata daisies, wanda ke haifar da mafi girman kashi na fararen farfajiyar, kuma ana nuna karin hasken rana, yana rage shigarwar zafi kuma a ƙarshe yana sanyaya duniya. Sabanin haka, yayin da zafin jiki ya faɗi, baƙar fata daisies suna samar da fararen daisies, suna shan ƙarin hasken rana kuma suna dumama duniya. Saboda haka zafin jiki zai haɗu da darajar da yawan haihuwar tsire-tsire daidai yake.

Lovelock da Watson sun nuna cewa, a kan iyakantaccen yanayi, wannan mummunan ra'ayi saboda gasa na iya daidaita zafin duniya a darajar da ke tallafawa rayuwa, idan fitar da makamashi na Sun ya canza, yayin da duniyar da ba ta da rai za ta nuna canje-canje masu yawa. Kashi na fararen da baƙar fata zai ci gaba da canzawa don kiyaye zafin jiki a darajar da yawan haihuwar shuke-shuke ya yi daidai, yana ba da damar nau'ikan rayuwa biyu su bunƙasa.

An ba da shawarar cewa sakamakon ya kasance mai hangowa saboda Lovelock da Watson sun zaɓi misalai waɗanda suka samar da amsoshin da suke so.[9]

Gudanar da gishiri na teku

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Gishiri na teku ya kasance daidai a kusan 3.5% na dogon lokaci. Tsayawa na gishiri a cikin yanayin teku yana da mahimmanci kamar yadda yawancin sel ke buƙatar gishiri na yau da kullun kuma ba sa jurewa da ƙimar sama da 5%. Kullum gishiri na teku asiri ne na dogon lokaci, saboda babu wani tsari da ke daidaita yawan gishiri daga koguna da aka sani. Kwanan nan an ba da shawarar cewa salinity na iya rinjayar karfi ta hanyar yaduwar ruwan teku ta hanyar duwatsu masu zafi, kuma suna fitowa a matsayin ruwan zafi a tsakiyar teku.[10] Koyaya, abun da ke cikin ruwan teku ba shi da daidaituwa, kuma yana da wahala a bayyana wannan gaskiyar ba tare da tasirin hanyoyin kwayoyin ba. Ɗaya daga cikin bayanin da aka ba da shawarar ya kasance a cikin samar da filayen gishiri a duk tarihin Duniya. An yi la'akari da cewa waɗannan sun halicci ne ta hanyar yankunan ƙwayoyin cuta waɗanda ke gyara ions da ƙarfe masu nauyi yayin hanyoyin rayuwarsu.[11]

A cikin tsarin biogeochemical na Duniya, tushe da sinks sune motsi na abubuwa. Abinda ke cikin ions na gishiri a cikin tekunmu da tekunmu shine: sodium (Na +), chlorine (Cl−), sulfate (SO4), magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+) da potassium (K +). Abubuwan da suka hada da salinity ba sa canzawa cikin sauri kuma suna da mazan jiya na ruwan teku. Akwai hanyoyi da yawa da ke canza salinity daga nau'in ƙwayoyin cuta zuwa nau'in narkewa da baya. Idan aka yi la'akari da abun da ke cikin ƙarfe na maɓuɓɓugar ƙarfe a fadin grid mai yawa na ƙirar thermomagnetic, ba wai kawai motsi na abubuwa zai taimaka wajen sake fasalin motsi na ions, electrons, da makamantansu ba, amma kuma zai iya taimakawa wajen daidaita jikin magnetic na filin geomagnetic na Duniya. Sanannun tushen sodium watau gishiri shine lokacin da ake jigilar yanayi, rushewa, da rushewar duwatsu cikin koguna kuma a ajiye su cikin teku.

Tekun Bahar Rum a matsayin koda na Gaia an samo shi (a nan) ta hanyar Kenneth J. Hsu, marubucin wasiƙa a cikin shekara ta 2001. Hsu ya ba da shawarar "ƙasa" na Bahar Rum shine shaida game da aikin Gaia "kashin". A cikin wannan da kuma abubuwan da aka ba da shawarar a baya, motsi ne na farantin da kimiyyar lissafi, ba ilmin halitta ba, wanda ke aiwatar da ka'idojin. An yi "ayyukan koda" a baya a lokacin "sauka Cretaceous (Kudancin Atlantic), Jurassic (Gulf na Mexico), Permo-Triassic (Turai), Devonian (Kanada), da Cambrian / Precambrian (Gondwana) saline giants. "[12]

Gudanar da iskar oxygen a cikin yanayi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Matakan iskar gas a cikin yanayi a cikin shekaru 420,000 na bayanan kankara daga Vostok, tashar binciken Antarctica. Lokaci na yanzu yana hagu.

Ka'idar Gaia ta bayyana cewa yanayin sararin samaniya na duniya yana cikin yanayi mai ƙarfi ta wurin kasancewar rayuwa.[5] Tsarin yanayi yana ba da yanayin da rayuwar zamani ta saba da shi. Dukkanin iskar gas na sararin samaniya ban da iskar gas mai kyau da ke cikin sararin samaniya ko dai kwayoyin halitta ne suka yi su ko kuma su ne suka sarrafa su.

Tsayawa na yanayi a Duniya ba sakamakon daidaitattun sunadarai ba ne. Oxygen wani fili ne mai saurin amsawa, kuma ya kamata a ƙarshe ya haɗu da iskar gas da ma'adanai na yanayin duniya da ɓawon burodi. Oxygen kawai ya fara ci gaba a cikin yanayi a cikin ƙananan kimanin shekaru miliyan 50 kafin farawar Babban Oxygenation Event.[13] Tun farkon zamanin Cambrian, yawan iskar oxygen na yanayi ya canza tsakanin 15% da 40% na girman yanayi.[14] Alamun methane (a adadin tan 100,000 da aka samar a kowace shekara) [15] bai kamata ya kasance ba, saboda methane yana ƙonewa a cikin yanayin oxygen.

Busasshen iska a cikin yanayin duniya ya ƙunshi kusan (ta ƙara) 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.039% carbon dioxide, da ƙananan iskar gas ciki har da methane . Lovelock da farko yayi hasashe cewa yawan iskar oxygen sama da kusan kashi 25% zai ƙara yawan gobarar daji da cin zarafi na dazuzzuka. Wannan tsarin, duk da haka, ba zai haɓaka matakan oxygen ba idan sun yi ƙasa da ƙasa. Idan ana iya nuna tsire-tsire suna samar da O 2 da ƙarfi fiye da kima to watakila kawai babban mai kula da dajin iskar oxygen ya zama dole. Aiki na baya-bayan nan game da binciken gawayi da ke haifar da wuta a cikin matakan Carboniferous da Cretaceous coal, a cikin lokutan yanayin kasa lokacin da O 2 ya wuce kashi 25%, ya goyi bayan takaddamar Lovelock.

Gudanar da CO2

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Masana kimiyya na Gaia suna ganin shiga rayayyun halittu a cikin sake zagayowar carbon a matsayin daya daga cikin matakai masu rikitarwa waɗanda ke kula da yanayin da ya dace da rayuwa. Abinda kawai ya fi dacewa da tushen carbon dioxide na yanayi (CO2) shine aikin dutsen wuta, yayin da kawai abin da aka cire shi ne ta hanyar hazo na duwatsun carbonate.[16] Ruwan carbon, mafita da daidaitawa suna rinjayar ƙwayoyin cuta da tushen shuke-shuke a cikin ƙasa, inda suke inganta yaduwar gas, ko a cikin coral reefs, inda aka ajiye calcium carbonate a matsayin mai ƙarfi a ƙarƙashin teku. Calcium carbonate ana amfani dashi da kwayoyin halitta masu rai don ƙera gwaje-gwaje da kwarangwal. Da zarar sun mutu, kwarangwal na rayayyun halittu sun faɗi. Wasu sun isa kasan teku mai zurfi inda zafi da matsin lamba na binnewa, da / ko dakarun tectonics, a ƙarshe sun canza su zuwa ajiyar chalk da dutse. Yawancin gawawwakin da suka fadi, duk da haka, sun sake narkewa cikin teku a ƙarƙashin zurfin biyan diyya na carbon.

Ɗaya daga cikin waɗannan kwayoyin halitta shine Emiliania huxleyi, yawan algae na coccolithophore wanda zai iya yin tasiri a cikin samuwar gajimare . [17] CO 2 wuce haddi yana ramawa ta hanyar haɓaka rayuwar coccolithophoid, ƙara yawan adadin CO 2 da aka kulle a cikin teku. Coccolithophoids, idan hasashen CLAW ya zama mai goyan baya (duba "Ka'ida ta Yanayin Zazzabi na Duniya") na iya taimakawa haɓaka murfin girgije, don haka sarrafa yanayin zafin jiki, yana taimakawa kwantar da duniyar duka kuma yana jin daɗin hazo da ake buƙata don tsire-tsire na ƙasa. [ <span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2015)">nan</span> ] CO 2 na yanayi ya karu kuma akwai wasu shaidun cewa yawan furannin algal na teku suma suna karuwa. [18]

Lichen da sauran kwayoyin suna hanzarta yanayin duwatsu a farfajiyar, yayin da lalacewar duwatsu ke faruwa da sauri a cikin ƙasa, godiya ga aikin tushen, fungi, ƙwayoyin cuta da dabbobi na karkashin kasa. Saboda haka ana sarrafa kwararar carbon dioxide daga yanayi zuwa ƙasa tare da taimakon halittu masu rai. Lokacin da matakan CO2 suka tashi a cikin yanayi zafin jiki yana ƙaruwa kuma tsire-tsire suna girma. Wannan ci gaban yana kawo yawan amfani da CO2 ta shuke-shuke, waɗanda ke sarrafa shi cikin ƙasa, suna cire shi daga yanayi.

Tarihi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Abubuwan da suka gabata

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Girgizar ƙasa da ɗan saman jannati William Anders ya ɗauka daga Apollo 8, Disamba 24, 1968

Ra'ayin Duniya a matsayin hadin gwiwa, mai rai, yana da dogon al'ada. Gaia mai ban mamaki ita ce allahiyar Girka ta farko da ke wakiltar Duniya, fassarar Girka ta "Uwar Halitta" (daga Ge = Duniya, da Aia = PIE), ko Uwar Duniya. James Lovelock ya ba da wannan sunan ga ra'ayinsa bayan wani shawara daga marubucin William Golding, wanda ke zaune a ƙauyen da Lovelock a lokacin (Bowerchalke, Wiltshire, Burtaniya). Shawarwarin Golding ya dogara ne akan Gea, wani madadin rubutun sunan allahiyar Girka, wanda aka yi amfani da shi azaman prefix a cikin ilimin ƙasa, geophysics da geochemistry.[5] Golding daga baya ya ambaci Gaia a cikin lacca na karɓar Kyautar Nobel.

A cikin karni na goma sha takwas, yayin da ilimin ƙasa ya karfafa a matsayin kimiyya ta zamani, James Hutton ya ci gaba da cewa tsarin ilimin ƙasa da na halitta suna da alaƙa. Daga baya, masanin halitta kuma mai bincike Alexander von Humboldt ya fahimci coevolution na kwayoyin halitta masu rai, yanayi, da ɓawon duniya.[19] A cikin karni na ashirin, Vladimir Vernadsky ya tsara ka'idar ci gaban duniya wanda yanzu yana daya daga cikin tushe na muhalli. Vernadsky masanin ilimin ƙasa ne na Ukraine kuma yana ɗaya daga cikin masana kimiyya na farko da suka gane cewa iskar oxygen, nitrogen, da carbon dioxide a cikin yanayin duniya sun fito ne daga hanyoyin halittu. A cikin shekarun 1920 ya wallafa ayyukan da ke jayayya cewa rayayyun halittu na iya sake fasalin duniyar kamar yadda kowane karfi na zahiri yake. Vernadsky ya kasance mai gabatarwa na tushen kimiyya don kimiyyar muhalli. Ba a yarda da maganganunsa na hangen nesa a Yamma ba, kuma wasu shekarun da suka gabata ra'ayin Gaia ya sami irin wannan juriya ta farko daga al'ummar kimiyya.

Har ila yau, a cikin karni na 20 Aldo Leopold, wanda ya fara ci gaba da Ka'idojin muhalli na zamani da kuma motsi don kiyaye jeji, ya ba da shawarar duniya mai rai a cikin ka'idoji na biocentric ko cikakke game da ƙasa.


Wani tasiri ga ra'ayin Gaia da motsi na muhalli gabaɗaya ya zo ne a matsayin sakamako na Space Race tsakanin Tarayyar Soviet da Amurka. A cikin shekarun 1960, mutane na farko a sararin samaniya sun iya ganin yadda Duniya ta kasance gaba ɗaya. Hoton Earthrise da ɗan saman jannati William Anders ya ɗauka a cikin 1968 a lokacin aikin Apollo 8 ya zama, ta hanyar Overview Effect, alama ce ta farko ga ƙungiyar muhalli ta duniya.

Bayyana ra'ayi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
James Lovelock, 2005

Lovelock ya fara bayyana ra'ayin duniya mai sarrafa kansa wanda al'ummar halittu masu rai ke sarrafawa a watan Satumbar 1965, yayin da yake aiki a Jet Propulsion Laboratory a California kan hanyoyin gano rayuwa a Mars.[20][21] Takarda ta farko da ta ambaci shi ne Planetary Atmospheres: Compositional da sauran canje-canje da ke da alaƙa da kasancewar rayuwa, wanda aka rubuta tare da CE Giffin . [22] Babban ra'ayi shi ne cewa za'a iya gano rayuwa a cikin sikelin duniya ta hanyar sinadarin sinadarai na yanayi. Dangane da bayanan da aka tattara ta wurin lura da Pic du Midi, taurari kamar Mars ko Venus suna da yanayi a cikin daidaitattun sunadarai. Wannan bambanci da yanayin duniya an dauke shi a matsayin tabbacin cewa babu rayuwa a cikin waɗannan taurari.

Lovelock ya tsara Gaia Hypothesis a cikin labaran mujallar a cikin 1972 [23] da 1974, [24] wanda ya biyo bayan littafin 1979 Gaia: Sabuwar kallo a rayuwa a Duniya . Wani labarin a cikin New Scientist na 6 ga Fabrairu, 1975, da kuma sanannen littafi mai tsawo na ra'ayi, wanda aka buga a 1979 a matsayin The Quest for Gaia, ya fara jan hankalin kimiyya da mai mahimmanci.

Lovelock ya kira shi da farko ra'ayin ra'ayi na Duniya, kuma hanya ce ta bayyana gaskiyar cewa haɗuwa da sunadarai ciki har da iskar oxygen da methane suna ci gaba a cikin daidaitattun maida hankali a cikin yanayin Duniya.[25] Lovelock ya ba da shawarar gano irin wannan haɗuwa a cikin yanayin wasu taurari a matsayin hanyar da za a iya dogara da ita kuma mai arha don gano rayuwa.

Lynn Margulis

A cikin 1971 masanin ilimin microbiologist Dr. Lynn Margulis ya shiga Lovelock a cikin ƙoƙari na fitar da ra'ayi na farko a cikin ka'idojin da aka tabbatar da kimiyya, yana ba da gudummawa game da yadda ƙwayoyin cuta ke shafar yanayi da yadudduka daban-daban a farfajiyar duniyar.[26] Masanin ilimin halittu na Amurka ya kuma tayar da zargi daga al'ummar kimiyya tare da gabatar da ka'idar kan asalin organels na eukaryotic da gudummawar da ta bayar ga ka'idar endosymbiotic, a zamanin yau an yarda da ita. Margulis ta keɓe na ƙarshe na surori takwas a cikin littafinta, The Symbiotic Planet, ga Gaia . Koyaya, ta ki amincewa da yaduwar mutum na Gaia kuma ta jaddada cewa Gaia "ba kwayoyin ba ne", amma "wani abu ne mai tasowa na hulɗa tsakanin kwayoyin". Ta bayyana Gaia a matsayin "jerin tsarin halittu masu hulɗa waɗanda suka hada da babban tsarin halittu guda ɗaya a farfajiyar Duniya. "Slogan" mafi tunawa da littafin ya kasance a zahiri wani dalibi na Margulis ne ya yi masa ba'a.

James Lovelock ya kira shawararsa ta farko da Ra'ayin Gaia amma kuma ya yi amfani da Ka'idar Gaia theory. Lovelock ya bayyana cewa tsari na farko ya dogara ne akan lura, amma har yanzu ba shi da bayanin kimiyya. Tunanin Gaia tun daga lokacin da aka goyi bayan gwaje-gwaje da yawa na kimiyya [27] kuma ya ba da tsinkaya masu amfani.

Taron Gaia na farko

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A cikin 1985, taron jama'a na farko a kan ra'ayin Gaia, Shin Duniya Mai Rayuwa ce? an gudanar da shi a Jami'ar Massachusetts Amherst, Agusta 1-6. Babban mai tallafawa shine National Audubon Society . Masu magana sun hada da James Lovelock, Lynn Margulis, George Wald, Mary Catherine Bateson, Lewis Thomas, Thomas Berry, David Abram, John Todd, Donald Michael, Christopher Bird, Michael Cohen, da William Fields. Kimanin mutane 500 ne suka halarci taron.

Taron Gaia na Biyu

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A shekara ta 1988, masanin yanayin yanayi Stephen Schneider ya shirya taron kungiyar American Geophysical Union . An gudanar da taron Chapman na farko a kan Gaia, a San Diego, California, a ranar 7 ga Maris, 1988.[26]

A lokacin zaman "tushen falsafa" na taron, David Abram ya yi magana game da tasirin kwatanci a kimiyya, da kuma ra'ayin Gaia kamar yadda yake ba da sabon kwatanci mai canza wasan, yayin da James Kirchner ya soki ra'ayin ga Gaia saboda rashin daidaito. Kirchner ya yi iƙirarin cewa Lovelock da Margulis ba su gabatar da ra'ayi ɗaya na Gaia ba, amma huɗu:

  • CoEvolutionary Gaia: cewa rayuwa da muhalli sun samo asali ne a hanyar da ta dace. Kirchner ya yi iƙirarin cewa an riga an yarda da wannan ta hanyar kimiyya kuma ba sabon abu ba ne.
  • Homeostatic Gaia: cewa rayuwa ta kiyaye kwanciyar hankali na yanayin halitta, kuma wannan kwanciyar hankali ya ba da damar rayuwa ta ci gaba da wanzuwa.
  • Geophysical Gaia: cewa ra'ayin Gaia ya haifar da sha'awa a cikin sake zagayowar geophysical sabili da haka ya haifar da sabon bincike mai ban sha'awa game da yanayin geophysiical na duniya.
  • Inganta Gaia: cewa Gaia ya tsara duniyar ta hanyar da ta sanya shi yanayi mafi kyau ga rayuwa gaba ɗaya. Kirchner ya yi iƙirarin cewa wannan ba za'a iya gwada shi ba sabili da haka ba kimiyya ba ne.

Daga Homeostatic Gaia, Kirchner ya amince da madadin biyu. "Weak Gaia" ya tabbatar da cewa rayuwa tana sa yanayin ya zama mai ɗorewa don bunƙasa dukan rayuwa. "Strong Gaia" a cewar Kirchner, ya tabbatar da cewa rayuwa tana sa muhalli ya zama mai ɗorewa, don ba da damar bunƙasa dukan rayuwa. Strong Gaia, Kirchner ya yi iƙirarin, ba shi da tabbas sabili da haka ba kimiyya ba ne.[28]

Lovelock da sauran masana kimiyya masu goyon bayan Gaia, duk da haka, sun yi ƙoƙari su karyata da'awar cewa ra'ayin ba kimiyya ba ne saboda ba zai yiwu a gwada shi ta hanyar gwaji mai sarrafawa ba. Misali, a kan cajin cewa Gaia ya kasance teleological, Lovelock da Andrew Watson sun ba da Daisyworld Model (da gyare-gyarensa, a sama) a matsayin shaida game da mafi yawan waɗannan zarge-zarge.[8] Lovelock ya ce samfurin Daisyworld "ya nuna cewa tsarin kai na yanayin duniya na iya fitowa daga gasa tsakanin nau'ikan rayuwa da ke canza yanayin su a hanyoyi daban-daban".[29]

Lovelock ta yi taka tsantsan don gabatar da wani sigar hasashen Gaia wanda ba shi da da'awar cewa Gaia da gangan ko kuma a hankali ta kiyaye ma'auni mai rikitarwa a cikin muhallinta wanda rayuwa ke buƙatar tsira. Da alama cewa da'awar cewa Gaia ya yi "da gangan" magana ce a cikin shahararren littafinsa na farko kuma ba a nufin a ɗauka a zahiri ba. Wannan sabon bayani na hasashen Gaia ya fi karɓuwa ga al'ummar kimiyya. Yawancin zarge-zargen da ake yi wa harkokin sadarwa sun daina, bayan wannan taron. [ <span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">abubuwan da ake bukata</span> ]

Taron Gaia na Uku

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

A lokacin taron Chapman na 2 a kan Gaia Hypothesis, wanda aka gudanar a Valencia, Spain, a ranar 23 ga Yuni 2000, halin da ake ciki ya canza sosai. Maimakon tattaunawa game da ra'ayoyin teleological na Gaian, ko "nau'o'i" na ra'ayoyi na Gaia, an mai da hankali ne akan takamaiman hanyoyin da aka kiyaye homeostasis na ɗan gajeren lokaci a cikin tsarin canjin juyin halitta na dogon lokaci.

Babban tambayoyin sune: [30]

  1. "Ta yaya tsarin halittu / yanayi na duniya da ake kira Gaia ya canza a cikin lokaci? Menene tarihinsa? Za Gaia ta ci gaba da kwanciyar hankali na tsarin a lokaci ɗaya amma har yanzu tana fuskantar canjin vectorial a ma'auni mai tsawo? Ta yaya za'a iya amfani da rikodin geologic don bincika waɗannan tambayoyin?"
  2. "Mene ne tsarin Gaia? Shin ra'ayoyin sun isa su rinjayi juyin halitta na yanayi? Shin akwai sassan tsarin da aka ƙaddara ta hanyar kowane binciken horo da ake gudanarwa a kowane lokaci ko kuma akwai wasu sassan da ya kamata a ɗauka a matsayin gaskiya don fahimtar Gaia kamar yadda ke dauke da kwayoyin halitta masu tasowa a tsawon lokaci? Menene ra'ayoyi tsakanin waɗannan sassa daban-daban na tsarin Gaian, kuma menene kusantar da al'amarin ke nufi ga tsarin Gaia a matsayin tsarin halittu na duniya da kuma yawan rayuwa?"
  3. "Ta yaya samfuran matakai da abubuwan da suka faru na Gaian ke da alaƙa da gaskiyar kuma ta yaya suke taimakawa wajen magance da fahimtar Gaia? Ta yaya sakamakon canja wurin Daisyworld zuwa duniyar gaskiya yake? Menene manyan 'yan takara don "daisies"? Shin yana da mahimmanci ga ka'idar Gaia ko muna samun daisies ko a'a? Ta yaya za mu iya bincika dabaru na Gaian tare da amfani da tsarin tsarin ko samfuran yanayi na duniya wanda ya haɗa da biota kuma ya ba da damar sake zagayowar sinadarai?"

A cikin 1997, Tyler Volk ya yi jayayya cewa tsarin Gaian kusan an samar da shi ne sakamakon juyin halitta zuwa ga jihohin homeostatic masu nisa daga daidaito waɗanda ke haɓaka samar da entropy, kuma Axel Kleidon (2004) ya yarda yana cewa: "... halayyar homeostatic na iya fitowa daga yanayin MEP da ke da alaƙa da albedo na duniya"; "... sakamakon halayyar symbiotic Duniya a cikin yanayin MEP na iya haifar da halayyar kusa da gida na tsarin Duniya a kan ma'auni na dogon lokaci, kamar yadda Gaia ya bayyana. M. Staley (2002) ya ba da shawarar "...wani nau'i na ka'idar Gaia wanda ya dogara da ka'idodin Darwiniyan na gargajiya... A cikin [wannan] sabon tsarin, tsarin muhalli sakamako ne na yawan jama'a. Matsayin zaɓe shine ya fi son kwayoyin da suka fi dacewa da yanayin muhalli. Koyaya, muhalli ba wuri ne mai tsauri don juyin halitta ba, amma yana da tasiri sosai ta kasancewar kwayoyin halitta. Sakamakon tsarin haɓaka tare da ya haifar da haɗuwa da yanayin da daidaituwa da mafi kyau.

Taron Gaia na huɗu

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

An gudanar da taron kasa da kasa na huɗu a kan ra'ayin Gaia, wanda Hukumar Kula da Gidan shakatawa ta Arewacin Virginia da sauransu suka tallafawa, a watan Oktoba na shekara ta 2006 a harabar Arlington, Virginia ta Jami'ar George Mason. [31]

Martin Ogle, Babban Mai Halitta, na NVRPA, kuma mai ba da shawara na Gaia na dogon lokaci, ya shirya taron. Lynn Margulis, Babban Farfesa na Jami'ar a Sashen Geosciences, Jami'ar Massachusetts-Amherst, kuma mai ba da shawara na dogon lokaci game da ra'ayin Gaia, ya kasance babban mai magana. Daga cikin sauran masu magana da yawa: Tyler Volk, co-direkta na Shirin a Kimiyya ta Duniya da Muhalli a Jami'ar New York; Dokta Donald Aitken, Shugaban Donald Aitsen Associates; Dokta Thomas Lovejoy, Shugaban Cibiyar Heinz don Kimiyya, Tattalin Arziki da Muhalli; Robert Corell, Babban Fellow, Shirin Manufofin Yanayi, American Meteorological Society da sanannen masanin muhalli, J. Baird Callicott.

Rashin amincewa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Bayan da farko ya sami kulawa kaɗan daga masana kimiyya (daga 1969 har zuwa 1977), bayan haka na ɗan lokaci yawancin masana kimiyya sun soki ra'ayin Gaia na farko, ciki har da Ford Doolittle, [32] Richard Dawkins da Stephen Jay Gould. [33][26] Lovelock ya ce saboda an sanya wa ra'ayinsa suna ne bayan allahiyar Girka, kuma yawancin wadanda ba masana kimiyya ba ne suka goyi bayan, an fassara ra'ayin Gaia a matsayin Addini neo-Pagan.[25] Masana kimiyya da yawa musamman sun soki hanyar da aka dauka a cikin sanannen littafinsa Gaia, New Look at Life on Earth don kasancewa teleological - imani cewa abubuwa suna da manufa kuma suna da niyya ga burin. Da yake amsawa ga wannan zargi a cikin 1990, Lovelock ya ce, "Babu inda a cikin rubuce-rubucenmu muke nuna ra'ayin cewa tsarin kula da kai na duniya yana da ma'ana, ko kuma ya haɗa da hangen nesa ko tsarawa ta hanyar halittu".

Stephen Jay Gould ya soki Gaia a matsayin "a metaphor, ba a hanyar ba". [34] Yana so ya san ainihin hanyoyin da aka samu homeostasis na sarrafa kansa. A cikin karewar Gaia, David Abram ya yi jayayya cewa Gould ya yi watsi da gaskiyar cewa "ma'anar", kanta, kwatanci ne - duk da cewa kwatanci ne na yau da kullun kuma sau da yawa ba a san shi ba - wanda ke sa mu yi la'akari da tsarin halitta da na rayuwa kamar dai su na'urori ne da aka tsara kuma aka gina su daga waje (maimakon a matsayin abubuwan da suka faru na autopoietic ko na tsara kansu). Misalai na inji, a cewar Abram, ya jagoranci mu mu yi watsi da ingancin aiki ko agentic na rayayyun halittu, yayin da misalai na kwayoyin halitta na ra'ayin Gaia ke jaddada hukumar aiki na duka halittu da biosphere gaba ɗaya.[35] Game da haddasawa a cikin Gaia, Lovelock ya yi jayayya cewa babu wata hanyar da ke da alhakin, cewa ba za a taɓa sanin haɗin tsakanin hanyoyin da aka sani ba, cewa an yarda da wannan a wasu fannoni na ilmin halitta da muhalli a matsayin lamari, kuma an ajiye takamaiman ƙiyayya don ra'ayinsa don wasu dalilai.[25]

Baya ga bayyana harshensa da fahimtar abin da ake nufi da nau'in rayuwa, Lovelock da kansa ya danganta mafi yawan zargi ga rashin fahimtar lissafin da ba na layi ba ta masu sukar sa, da kuma nau'in Ragewa mai haɗama wanda dole ne a danganta duk abubuwan da suka faru nan da nan ga takamaiman dalilai kafin gaskiyar. Ya kuma bayyana cewa mafi yawan masu sukar sa masana kimiyyar halitta ne amma ra'ayinsa ya haɗa da gwaje-gwaje a fannoni a waje da ilmin halitta, kuma wasu abubuwan da ke sarrafa kansu bazai iya bayyana su da lissafi ba.[25]

Zaɓin halitta da juyin halitta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Lovelock ya ba da shawarar cewa hanyoyin mayar da martani na duniya na iya samo asali ta hanyar Zaɓin halitta, yana mai cewa kwayoyin da ke inganta mahallinsu don rayuwarsu sun fi kyau fiye da waɗanda ke lalata mahallinsu. Koyaya, a farkon shekarun 1980, W. Ford Doolittle da Richard Dawkins daban-daban sun yi jayayya da wannan bangare na Gaia. Doolittle ya yi jayayya cewa babu wani abu a cikin kwayar halitta na kwayoyin halitta da zai iya samar da hanyoyin ra'ayoyin da Lovelock ya gabatar, sabili da haka ra'ayin Gaia bai ba da wata hanyar da za a iya amfani da ita ba kuma ba ta da kimiyya.[32] Dawkins a halin yanzu ya bayyana cewa don kwayoyin suyi aiki a cikin kide-kide zai buƙaci hangen nesa da tsarawa, wanda ya saba wa fahimtar kimiyya ta yanzu game da juyin halitta.[33] Kamar Doolittle, ya kuma ki amincewa da yiwuwar cewa ra'ayoyin ra'ayoyi zasu iya daidaita tsarin.

Margulis ya yi jayayya a cikin 1999 cewa "babban hangen nesa na Darwin ba daidai ba ne, kawai ba cikakke ba. ne. A cikin jaddada gasa kai tsaye tsakanin mutane don albarkatu a matsayin hanyar zabin farko, Darwin (kuma musamman mabiyansa) ya haifar da ra'ayi cewa yanayin kawai filin wasa ne". Ta rubuta cewa abun da ke cikin yanayin duniya, hydrosphere, da lithosphere an tsara su a kusa da "maɓallan da aka saita" kamar yadda yake a cikin homeostasis, amma waɗannan saitawa suna canzawa tare da lokaci.[36]

Masanin ilimin juyin halitta WD Hamilton ya kira manufar Gaia Copernican, ya kara da cewa zai dauki wani Newton don bayyana yadda Gaian ke tafiyar da kai ta hanyar zabin yanayi na Darwiniyanci . [5] [ mafi kyau tushe da ake bukata ] Kwanan nan Ford Doolittle gini a kan nasa da Inkpen's ITSNTS (It's The Song Ba The Singer) shawara ya ba da shawarar cewa bambance-bambancen dagewa na iya taka rawa iri ɗaya ga bambance-bambancen haifuwa a cikin juyin halitta ta zaɓin yanayi, don haka samar da yiwuwar sulhu tsakanin ka'idar zaɓin yanayi da kuma hasashen Gaia. [37]

Rashin amincewa a karni na 21

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Maganar Gaia ta ci gaba da karɓar shakku ta hanyar masana kimiyya. Misali, an gabatar da muhawara da ke goyon baya da kuma adawa da shi a cikin mujallar Climatic Change a cikin 2002 da 2003. Wani muhimmin gardama da aka gabatar game da shi shine misalai da yawa inda rayuwa ta sami mummunar tasiri ko rikice-rikice a kan muhalli maimakon yin aiki don tsara shi. Yawancin littattafai na baya-bayan nan sun soki ra'ayin Gaia, suna bayyana ra'ayoyin da suka fito daga "... ra'ayin gaia ba shi da goyon baya mai ban sha'awa kuma yana da mahimman matsaloli na ka'idoji" zuwa "An dakatar da shi ba tare da jin daɗi ba tsakanin kwatanci, gaskiya, da kimiyya ta ƙarya, na fi son barin Gaia a baya" zuwa "Tunan Gaia ba ya goyi bayan ka'idar juyin halitta ko kuma shaidar da ta hanyar rikodin ilimin ƙasa. "[38] Tunanin CLAW, da farko an ba da shawarar a matsayin misali mai yuwuwa na ra'ayoyin Gaian kai tsaye, daga baya an gano cewa ba shi da inganci yayin da fahimtar ƙwayoyin girgije ya inganta. [7] A cikin 2009 an gabatar da ra'ayin Medea: cewa rayuwa tana da mummunar tasiri (biocidal) a kan yanayin duniya, a cikin adawa kai tsaye da ra'ayi na Gaia.

A cikin wani kimantawa na tsawon littafi na 2013 game da ra'ayin Gaia yana la'akari da shaidar zamani daga ko'ina cikin fannoni daban-daban masu dacewa, Toby Tyrrell ya kammala cewa: "Na yi imanin Gaia ƙarshen ƙarshe ne. Nazarinsa, duk da haka, ya haifar da sabbin tambayoyi da yawa da ke haifar da tunani. Yayin da yake ƙin Gaia, za mu iya a lokaci guda godiya da asalin Lovelock da faɗin hangen nesa, kuma fahimtar cewa ra'ayinsa mai ƙarfin zuciya ya taimaka wajen motsa sabbin ra'ayoyi da yawa game da Duniya, da duniya, da kuma ya jagoranci tsarin nazarin shi. "[39] A wani wuri ya gabatar da kammalawa "The Gaia hypothesis ne ba daidai hoto na yadda duniyarmu ke aiki". Wannan sanarwa tana buƙatar a fahimta kamar yadda yake magana game da nau'ikan "mai ƙarfi" da "mai matsakaici" na Gaia - cewa halittu suna bin ka'idar da ke aiki don sa Duniya ta fi dacewa (ƙarfi 5) ko kuma ta dace da rayuwa (ƙarfi 4) ko kuma tana aiki azaman tsarin gida (ƙarfi 3). Wannan shine "mafi rauni" nau'in Gaia wanda Lovelock ya ba da shawara. Tyrrell ya ƙi shi. Koyaya, ya gano cewa nau'ikan Gaia guda biyu marasa ƙarfi - Coeveolutionary Gaia da Influential Gaia, waɗanda ke tabbatar da cewa akwai alaƙa ta kusa tsakanin juyin halitta na rayuwa da muhalli kuma cewa ilmin halitta yana shafar yanayin jiki da na sunadarai - dukansu gaskiya ne, amma ba shi da amfani a yi amfani da kalmar "Gaia" a wannan ma'anar kuma an riga an yarda da waɗannan nau'ikan biyu kuma an bayyana su ta hanyar hanyoyin zabin halitta da daidaitawa.[39]

Ka'idar Anthropic

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kamar yadda masu sukar da yawa suka jaddada, babu wata hanyar da za ta iya amfani da ita wacce za ta haifar da juyin halitta na mummunan ra'ayoyi wanda ke haifar da tsarin kula da yanayi na duniya.[38] Lalle ne, abubuwan da suka faru da yawa a tarihin Duniya (duba ra'ayin Medea) sun nuna cewa Duniya da biosphere na iya shiga cikin madauki masu kyau na lalata kansu wanda ke haifar da abubuwan da suka haifar da lalacewar jama'a.[40]

Misali, Snowball Earth glaciations ya bayyana ya haifar da ci gaban photosynthesis a lokacin da Sun ya fi sanyi fiye da yadda yake yanzu. Wadannan hanyoyin za su sami wasu sakamako, amma duk wani fahimtar yanayin glacial-interglacial yana buƙatar nazarin bambance-bambance a cikin yanayin duniya da ke kewaye da Rana, karkatawar axis na juyawa, da kuma 'wobble' a cikin wannan motsi na juyawa wanda ke haifar da lokaci a cikin hasken rana na Arewa, don haka saita tsarin zafi na Duniya. Ciki har da karatu daga fannonin lissafi da kimiyyar duniya, fannonin ilimin ƙasa da yanayin ƙasa suna ba da haske game da abubuwan da ke haifar da zamanin kankara. A halin yanzu, cire carbon dioxide daga yanayi, tare da oxidation na methane na yanayi ta hanyar iskar oxygen, ya haifar da raguwar tasirin greenhouse. [bayanin kula 1] Sakamakon fadada kankara ya rage yawan hasken rana da Duniya ta sha, wanda ya haifar da ra'ayoyin ra'ayi mai kyau na kankara-albedo wanda ya haifar leken kankara a kusan dukkanin duniya.[41] Koyaya, ya kamata a fahimci matakai na dutsen wuta a wannan sikelin kamar yadda yake da alaƙa da matsin lamba da aka yi a kan ɓawon burodi na Duniya, kuma an sake shi a lokacin da aka koma kankara. Kashewa daga Duniya daga yanayin daskarewa ya bayyana kai tsaye ne saboda sakin carbon dioxide da methane ta hanyar dutsen wuta, kodayake sakin methane ta ƙwayoyin cuta da aka kama a ƙarƙashin kankara na iya taka rawa. [42][43] Ƙananan gudummawa ga dumama zai zo ne daga gaskiyar cewa rufe duniya ta kankara ya fi hana photosynthesis kuma ya rage cire carbon dioxide daga yanayi ta hanyar yanayin duwatsu na siliceous. Koyaya, idan babu aikin tectonic, yanayin dusar ƙanƙara na iya ci gaba har abada. : 43–68 :43–68

Abubuwan da suka faru na ilimin ƙasa tare da karfafa ra'ayoyi masu kyau (tare da wasu yiwuwar shiga cikin halittu) sun haifar da babban taron halaka a rikodin, taron halaka na Permian-Triassic kimanin shekaru miliyan 250 da suka gabata. Abubuwan da suka faru sun kasance fashewar dutsen wuta a cikin Siberian Traps, wani yanki mai tuddai na ambaliyar ruwa a Siberia. Wadannan fashewar sun fitar da matakan carbon dioxide da sulfur dioxide wanda ya kara yanayin zafi na duniya kuma ya sanya teku.[44] Kimanin hauhawar matakan carbon dioxide ya kasance a ko'ina, daga karamin karuwa sau biyu, zuwa karuwa sau ashirin. : 69-91 Faɗakar da abinci ya kara yawan zafin jiki zuwa mafi girma fiye da abin da za a sa ran kawai daga tasirin greenhouse na carbon dioxide: waɗannan sun haɗa da ra'ayoyin albedo na kankara, karuwar evaporation na tururin ruwa (wani gas mai ɗorewa) cikin yanayi, sakin methane daga dumama na ajiyar methane hydrate da aka binne a ƙarƙashin permafrost da kuma ƙarƙashin ƙasa na shelf na nahiyar, da kuma karuwar gobarar daji.[45] : 69-91 Karuwar carbon dioxide ta yi wa teku ƙanƙara, wanda ya haifar da yaduwar mutuwar halittu tare da kwarangwal na carbonate, kashe mollusks da crustaceans kamar crabs da lobsters da lalata coral reefs.[46] Mutuwarsu ta haifar da rushewar dukkan jerin abinci na teku.[47] An yi jayayya cewa hauhawar yanayin zafi na iya haifar da rushewar chemocline wanda ke raba ruwa mai zurfi na sulfidic daga ruwan oxygenated, wanda ya haifar da sakin hydrogen sulfide mai guba (wanda aka samar da kwayoyin cuta na anerobic) zuwa teku har ma da cikin yanayi, yana ba da gudummawa ga rushewar (da farko methane-driven) na Layer ozone, kuma yana taimakawa wajen bayyana mutuwar dabba da rayuwar shuka ta duniya.[48][49]

Dangane da ka'idar ɗan adam mai rauni, lurawarmu game da irin wannan madaidaiciyar madaidaicin ra'ayi shine tasirin zaɓin mai kallo. [50] [51][52] A duk sararin samaniya, taurari ne kawai tare da kaddarorin Gaian waɗanda zasu iya samo asali masu basira, masu sanin kansu waɗanda zasu iya yin irin waɗannan tambayoyin. : 50 Mutum na iya tunanin duniyoyi masu yawa inda rayuwa ta samo asali tare da kwayoyin halitta daban-daban ko kuma inda duniyoyi ke da halaye daban-daban na geophysical kamar yadda duniya ta mutu a halin yanzu saboda tasirin greenhouse, ko kuma suna cikin Snowball na dindindin, ko kuma saboda wani abu ko wani, an hana rayuwa daga samo asali fiye da matakin microbial. [Littafi na 2][53]

Idan babu wata hanyar da za a iya amfani da ita don zaɓin halitta don aiki a matakin biosphere, to, zai bayyana cewa ka'idar anthropic tana ba da bayani kawai don tsira da yanayin Ƙungiya a lokacin geologic. Amma a cikin 'yan shekarun nan, an canza wannan ra'ayi mai raguwa ta hanyar fahimtar cewa zabin halitta na iya aiki a matakai da yawa na matsayi na halittu - ba kawai a matakin kwayoyin ba.[54] Zaɓin halitta na gargajiya na Darwinian yana buƙatar haihuwar ƙungiyoyi waɗanda ke nuna kaddarorin gado ko ƙwarewar da ke haifar da samun 'ya'ya da yawa fiye da masu fafatawa. Biospheres masu nasara a bayyane ba za su iya haifuwa don haifar da kwafin kansu ba, don haka zaɓin halitta na gargajiya na Darwinian ba zai iya aiki ba. Ford Doolittle ya gabatar da hanyar zabin matakin biosphere: Ko da yake ya kasance mai karfi da kuma farkon mai sukar ra'ayin Gaia, ya fara tunanin hanyoyin da za a iya "Darwinised", yana neman hanyoyin da duniyar za ta iya samo asali daga daidaitawar matakin biosphere.[32] Doolittle ya ba da shawarar cewa bambancin ci gaba - rayuwa kawai - ana iya ɗaukarsa hanyar da ta dace don zaɓin halitta. Yayin da Duniya ke wucewa ta hanyar ƙalubale daban-daban, abin da ya faru na bambancin juriya yana ba da damar zaɓaɓɓun ƙungiyoyi don cimma matsaya ta hanyar tsira daga mutuwar masu fafatawa. Kodayake yanayin halittu na duniya ba ya gasa da sauran halittu a wasu taurari, akwai masu fafatawa da yawa don rayuwa a wannan duniyar. Gabaɗaya, Gaia ya zama rukuni ɗaya na duk waɗanda suka tsira daga kakanni na duniya na ƙarshe (LUCA). [52] Sauran shawarwari daban-daban don zaɓin matakin biosphere sun haɗa da zaɓin tsari, matsayi na entropic, da kuma la'akari da Gaia a matsayin tsarin Holobiont.[55] A ƙarshe, bambancin juriya da zaɓin jerin sun bambanta da ka'idar ɗan adam, yayin da matsayi na entropic da muhawara na holobiont na iya ba da damar fahimtar fitowar Gaia ba tare da muhawari na ɗan adam ba.[55][56]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ Lovelock, J. E. (1972). "Gaia as seen through the atmosphere". Atmospheric Environment. 6 (8): 579–580. Bibcode:1972AtmEn...6..579L. doi:10.1016/0004-6981(72)90076-5.
  2. ↑ Lovelock, J. E.; Margulis, L. (1974). "Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the gaia hypothesis". Tellus A (in Turanci). 26 (1–2): 2–10. Bibcode:1974Tell...26....2L. doi:10.3402/tellusa.v26i1-2.9731. S2CID 129803613.
  3. ↑ "Wollaston Award Lovelock". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  4. ↑ (Roger S. ed.). Missing or empty |title= (help)
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Lovelock 2009.
  6. ↑ Owen, T.; Cess, R.D.; Ramanathan, V. (1979). "Earth: An enhanced carbon dioxide greenhouse to compensate for reduced solar luminosity". Nature. 277 (5698): 640–2. Bibcode:1979Natur.277..640O. doi:10.1038/277640a0. S2CID 4326889.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Charlson, R. J.; Lovelock, J. E; Andreae, M. O.; Warren, S. G. (1987). "Oceanic phytoplankton, atmospheric sulphur, cloud albedo and climate". Nature. 326 (6114): 655–661. Bibcode:1987Natur.326..655C. doi:10.1038/326655a0. S2CID 4321239.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Watson, A.J.; Lovelock, J.E (1983). "Biological homeostasis of the global environment: the parable of Daisyworld". Tellus. 35B (4): 286–9. Bibcode:1983TellB..35..284W. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0889.1983.tb00031.x.
  9. ↑ Kirchner, James W. (2003). "The Gaia Hypothesis: Conjectures and Refutations". Climatic Change. 58 (1–2): 21–45. Bibcode:2003ClCh...58...21K. doi:10.1023/A:1023494111532. S2CID 1153044.
  10. ↑ Gorham, Eville (1 January 1991). "Biogeochemistry: its origins and development". Biogeochemistry. Kluwer Academic. 13 (3): 199–239. Bibcode:1991Biogc..13..199G. doi:10.1007/BF00002942. ISSN 1573-515X. S2CID 128563314.
  11. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Segar-20122
  12. ↑ "Scientia Marina: List of Issues". scimar.icm.csic.es (in Turanci). Retrieved 2017-02-04.
  13. ↑ Anbar, A.; Duan, Y.; Lyons, T.; Arnold, G.; Kendall, B.; Creaser, R.; Kaufman, A.; Gordon, G.; Scott, C.; Garvin, J.; Buick, R. (2007). "A whiff of oxygen before the great oxidation event?". Science. 317 (5846): 1903–1906. Bibcode:2007Sci...317.1903A. doi:10.1126/science.1140325. PMID 17901330. S2CID 25260892.
  14. ↑ Berner, R. A. (Sep 1999). "Atmospheric oxygen over Phanerozoic time". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 96 (20): 10955–10957. Bibcode:1999PNAS...9610955B. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.20.10955. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 34224. PMID 10500106.
  15. ↑ Cicerone, R.J.; Oremland, R.S. (1988). "Biogeochemical aspects of atmospheric methane" (PDF). Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 2 (4): 299–327. Bibcode:1988GBioC...2..299C. doi:10.1029/GB002i004p00299. S2CID 56396847.
  16. ↑ Karhu, J.A.; Holland, H.D. (1 October 1996). "Carbon isotopes and the rise of atmospheric oxygen". Geology. 24 (10): 867–870. Bibcode:1996Geo....24..867K. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0867:CIATRO>2.3.CO;2.
  17. ↑ Harding 2006.
  18. ↑ "Interagency Report Says Harmful Algal Blooms Increasing". 12 September 2007. Archived from the original on 9 February 2008.
  19. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named CapraWeb
  20. ↑ Lovelock, J. E. (1965). "A physical basis for life detection experiments". Nature. 207 (7): 568–570. Bibcode:1965Natur.207..568L. doi:10.1038/207568a0. PMID 5883628. S2CID 33821197.
  21. ↑ "Geophysiology". Archived from the original on 2007-05-06. Retrieved 2007-05-05.
  22. ↑ Lovelock, J. E.; Giffin, C.E. (1969). "Planetary Atmospheres: Compositional and other changes associated with the presence of Life". Advances in the Astronautical Sciences. 25: 179–193. ISBN 978-0-87703-028-7.
  23. ↑ Lovelock, J. E. (1972). "Gaia as seen through the atmosphere". Atmospheric Environment. 6 (8): 579–580. Bibcode:1972AtmEn...6..579L. doi:10.1016/0004-6981(72)90076-5.
  24. ↑ Lovelock, J. E.; Margulis, L. (1974). "Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the gaia hypothesis". Tellus A (in Turanci). 26 (1–2): 2–10. Bibcode:1974Tell...26....2L. doi:10.3402/tellusa.v26i1-2.9731. S2CID 129803613.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 Lovelock 2001.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Turney 2003.
  27. ↑ Lovelock, J. E. (1990). "Hands up for the Gaia hypothesis". Nature. 344 (6262): 100–2. Bibcode:1990Natur.344..100L. doi:10.1038/344100a0. S2CID 4354186.
  28. ↑ Kirchner, James W. (1989). "The Gaia hypothesis: Can it be tested?". Reviews of Geophysics. 27 (2): 223–235. Bibcode:1989RvGeo..27..223K. doi:10.1029/RG027i002p00223.
  29. ↑ Lenton, TM; Lovelock, JE (2000). "Daisyworld is Darwinian: Constraints on adaptation are important for planetary self-regulation". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 206 (1): 109–14. Bibcode:2000JThBi.206..109L. doi:10.1006/jtbi.2000.2105. PMID 10968941. S2CID 5486128.
  30. ↑ American Geophysical Union. "General Information Chapman Conference on the Gaia Hypothesis University of Valencia Valencia, Spain June 19-23, 2000 (Monday through Friday)". AGU Meetings. Archived from the original on 4 June 2012. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
  31. ↑ Official Site of Arlington County Virginia. "Gaia Theory Conference at George Mason University Law School". Archived from the original on 2013-12-03. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Doolittle, W. F. (1981). "Is Nature Really Motherly". The Coevolution Quarterly. Spring: 58–63.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Dawkins 1982.
  34. ↑ Gould S.J. (June 1997). "Kropotkin was no crackpot". Natural History. 106: 12–21.
  35. ↑ Abram 1991.
  36. ↑ Margulis 1998.
  37. ↑ Doolittle, W. Ford (2017). "Darwinizing Gaia". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 434: 11–19. Bibcode:2017JThBi.434...11D. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2017.02.015. PMID 28237396.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Empty citation (help) Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "beerling2007" defined multiple times with different content
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Tyrrell 2013.
  40. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  41. ↑ Harland, W. B. (1964-05-01). "Critical evidence for a great infra-Cambrian glaciation". Geologische Rundschau. 54 (1): 45–61. Bibcode:1964GeoRu..54...45H. doi:10.1007/BF01821169. ISSN 1432-1149. S2CID 128676272.
  42. ↑ Crowley, T.J.; Hyde, W.T.; Peltier, W.R. (2001). "CO 2 levels required for deglaciation of a 'near-snowball' Earth". Geophysical Research Letters. 28 (2): 283–6. Bibcode:2001GeoRL..28..283C. doi:10.1029/2000GL011836.
  43. ↑ Boyd, E.S.; Skidmore, M.; Mitchell, A.C.; Bakermans, C.; Peters, J.W. (2010). "Methanogenesis in subglacial sediments". Environmental Microbiology Reports. 2 (5): 685–692. Bibcode:2010EnvMR...2..685B. doi:10.1111/j.1758-2229.2010.00162.x. PMID 23766256.
  44. ↑ Hulse, D; Lau, K.V.; Sebastiaan, J.V.; Arndt, S; Meyer, K.M.; Ridgwell, A (28 Oct 2021). "End-Permian marine extinction due to temperature-driven nutrient recycling and euxinia". Nat Geosci. 14 (11): 862–867. Bibcode:2021NatGe..14..862H. doi:10.1038/s41561-021-00829-7. S2CID 240076553 Check |s2cid= value (help). |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  45. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Mann_2023
  46. ↑ McKinney, M. L. (1987). "Taxonomic selectivity and continuous variation in mass and background extinctions of marine taxa". Nature. 325 (6100): 143–145. Bibcode:1987Natur.325..143M. doi:10.1038/325143a0. S2CID 13473769.
  47. ↑ Twitchett RJ, Looy CV, Morante R, Visscher H, Wignall PB (2001). "Rapid and synchronous collapse of marine and terrestrial ecosystems during the end-Permian biotic crisis". Geology. 29 (4): 351–354. Bibcode:2001Geo....29..351T. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029<0351:RASCOM>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0091-7613.
  48. ↑ Lamarque, J.-F.; Kiehl, J. T.; Orlando, J. J. (2007). "Role of hydrogen sulfide in a Permian-Triassic boundary ozone collapse". Geophysical Research Letters. 34 (2). Bibcode:2007GeoRL..34.2801L. doi:10.1029/2006GL028384.
  49. ↑ Kump, Lee R.; Pavlov, Alexander; Arthur, Michael A. (2005). "Massive Release of Hydrogen Sulfide to the Surface Ocean and Atmosphere During Intervals of Oceanic Anoxia". Geology. 33 (5): 397–400. Bibcode:2005Geo....33..397K. doi:10.1130/G21295.1.
  50. ↑ Nicholson, Arwen E.; Wilkinson, Davin M.; Williams, Hywel T. P.; Lenton, Timothy M. (2018). "Alternative mechanisms for Gaia". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 457: 249–257. Bibcode:2018JThBi.457..249N. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2018.08.032. PMID 30149011. |hdl-access= requires |hdl= (help)
  51. ↑ Fellgett, P. B. (1988). "GAIA and the Anthropic Principle". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 29: 85. Bibcode:1988QJRAS..29...85F. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Doolittle, W. Ford. "Is the Earth an organism?". Aeon. Aeon Media Group Ltd. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
  53. ↑ Samfuri:Harvp: "The Universe would have to be full of dead planets whose homeostatic regulation systems had failed, with, dotted around, a handful of successful, well-regulated planets, of which the Earth is one."
  54. ↑ Shavit, Ayelet. "Altruism and Group Selection". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. University of Tennessee at Martin. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Arthur, Rudy; Nicholson, Arwen (2022). "Selection principles for Gaia". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 533. arXiv:1907.12654. Bibcode:2022JThBi.53310940A. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2021.110940. PMID 34710434 Check |pmid= value (help). Retrieved 11 December 2023.
  56. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Wegner_2019
Daga "https://ha.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hasashen_Gaia&oldid=729728"