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<h1>Introduction</h1>
<p>You're knee deep in learning the <a href="http://www.python.org/">Python</a>
programming language. The syntax is starting to make sense. The first
few "<em>ahh-ha</em>!" moments are hitting you as you're learning conditional
statements, for loops and classes while playing around with the open source
libraries that make Python such an amazing language.</p>
<p>Now you want to take your initial Python knowledge and make something real.
A real web application that's available on the web which you can show off or
sell as a service to other people. That's where Full Stack Python comes in.
You've come to the right place to learn everything you need to deploy and
run a production Python web application.</p>
<p>This guide branches out on topic because your learning needs depend on what
you're currently trying to do. </p>
<h3>Let's get started. What do you need to do right now?</h3>
<h1>Why Use Python?</h1>
<p>Python's expansive library of open source data analysis tools,
<a href="/web-frameworks.html">web frameworks</a>,
and testing instruments make its ecosystem one of the largest out of any
programming community. </p>
<p>Python is an accessible language for new programmers because of the extensive
availability of
<a href="/best-python-resources.html">free and low cost introductory resources</a>. The
language is also widely taught in universities and used for working with
beginner-friendly devices such as the
<a href="http://www.raspberrypi.org/">Raspberry Pi</a>.</p>
<div class="well see-also">
If you're learning about why to use Python you should also take a look at
<a href="/best-python-resources.html">the best Python resources</a> and read
<a href="/what-full-stack-means.html">what "full stack" means</a>.
</div>
<h2>Python's programming language popularity</h2>
<p>Several programming language popularity rankings exist. While it's
possible to criticize that these guides are not exact, every ranking shows
Python as a top programming language within the top ten, if not the top five
of all languages. </p>
<p>Most recently, the
<a href="http://redmonk.com/sogrady/2015/01/14/language-rankings-1-15/">RedMonk January 2015 ranking</a> had Python at #4.</p>
<p>The
<a href="http://www.tiobe.com/index.php/content/paperinfo/tpci/index.html">TIOBE Index</a>,
a long-running language ranking, has Python steady at #8. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://pypl.github.io/PYPL.html">PopularitY of Programming Language</a>
(PYPL), based on leading indicators from Google Trends search keyword
analysis, shows Python at #3.</p>
<p><a href="http://githut.info/">GitHut</a>, a visualization of GitHub language popularity,
pegs Python at #3 overall as well.</p>
<p>These rankings provide a rough measure for language popularity. They are not
intended as a precise measurement tool to determine exactly how many
developers are using a language. However, the aggregate view shows that Python
remains a stable programming language with a growing ecosystem.</p>
<h2>Why does the choice of programming language matter?</h2>
<p>Programming languages have unique ecosystems, cultures and philosophies
built around them. You will find friction with a community and difficulty
in learning if your approach to programming varies from the philosophy of
the programming language you've selected.</p>
<p>Python's culture values
<a href="https://github.com/trending?l=python&since=monthly">open source software</a>,
community involvement with
<a href="http://www.pycon.org/">local, national and international events</a> and
teaching to new programmers. If those values are also important to you and/or
your organization then Python may be a good fit. </p>
<p>The philosophy for Python is so strongly held that it's even embedded in
the language as shown when the interpreter executes "import this" and
displays <a href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0020/">The Zen of Python</a>.</p>
<div class="codehilite"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">import</span> <span class="n">this</span>
<span class="n">The</span> <span class="n">Zen</span> <span class="n">of</span> <span class="n">Python</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">by</span> <span class="n">Tim</span> <span class="n">Peters</span>
<span class="n">Beautiful</span> <span class="n">is</span> <span class="n">better</span> <span class="n">than</span> <span class="n">ugly</span><span class="p">.</span>
<span class="n">Explicit</span> <span class="n">is</span> <span class="n">better</span> <span class="n">than</span> <span class="n">implicit</span><span class="p">.</span>
<span class="n">Simple</span> <span class="n">is</span> <span class="n">better</span> <span class="n">than</span> <span class="n">complex</span><span class="p">.</span>
<span class="n">Complex</span> <span class="n">is</span> <span class="n">better</span> <span class="n">than</span> <span class="n">complicated</span><span class="p">.</span>
<span class="n">Flat</span> <span class="n">is</span> <span class="n">better</span> <span class="n">than</span> <span class="n">nested</span><span class="p">.</span>
<span class="n">Sparse</span> <span class="n">is</span> <span class="n">better</span> <span class="n">than</span> <span class="n">dense</span><span class="p">.</span>
<span class="n">Readability</span> <span class="n">counts</span><span class="p">.</span>
<span class="n">Special</span> <span class="n">cases</span> <span class="n">aren</span><span class="err">'</span><span class="n">t</span> <span class="n">special</span> <span class="n">enough</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="k">break</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">rules</span><span class="p">.</span>
<span class="n">Although</span> <span class="n">practicality</span> <span class="n">beats</span> <span class="n">purity</span><span class="p">.</span>
<span class="n">Errors</span> <span class="n">should</span> <span class="n">never</span> <span class="n">pass</span> <span class="n">silently</span><span class="p">.</span>
<span class="n">Unless</span> <span class="n">explicitly</span> <span class="n">silenced</span><span class="p">.</span>
<span class="n">In</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">face</span> <span class="n">of</span> <span class="n">ambiguity</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">refuse</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">temptation</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="n">guess</span><span class="p">.</span>
<span class="n">There</span> <span class="n">should</span> <span class="n">be</span> <span class="n">one</span><span class="o">--</span> <span class="n">and</span> <span class="n">preferably</span> <span class="n">only</span> <span class="n">one</span> <span class="o">--</span><span class="n">obvious</span> <span class="n">way</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="k">do</span> <span class="n">it</span><span class="p">.</span>
<span class="n">Although</span> <span class="n">that</span> <span class="n">way</span> <span class="n">may</span> <span class="n">not</span> <span class="n">be</span> <span class="n">obvious</span> <span class="n">at</span> <span class="n">first</span> <span class="n">unless</span> <span class="n">you</span><span class="err">'</span><span class="n">re</span> <span class="n">Dutch</span><span class="p">.</span>
<span class="n">Now</span> <span class="n">is</span> <span class="n">better</span> <span class="n">than</span> <span class="n">never</span><span class="p">.</span>
<span class="n">Although</span> <span class="n">never</span> <span class="n">is</span> <span class="n">often</span> <span class="n">better</span> <span class="n">than</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">right</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">now</span><span class="p">.</span>
<span class="n">If</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">implementation</span> <span class="n">is</span> <span class="n">hard</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="n">explain</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">it</span><span class="err">'</span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="n">bad</span> <span class="n">idea</span><span class="p">.</span>
<span class="n">If</span> <span class="n">the</span> <span class="n">implementation</span> <span class="n">is</span> <span class="n">easy</span> <span class="n">to</span> <span class="n">explain</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">it</span> <span class="n">may</span> <span class="n">be</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="n">good</span> <span class="n">idea</span><span class="p">.</span>
<span class="n">Namespaces</span> <span class="n">are</span> <span class="n">one</span> <span class="n">honking</span> <span class="n">great</span> <span class="n">idea</span> <span class="o">--</span> <span class="n">let</span><span class="err">'</span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="k">do</span> <span class="n">more</span> <span class="n">of</span> <span class="n">those</span><span class="o">!</span>
</pre></div>
<h3>More perspectives on why to use Python</h3>
<ul>
<li>
<p>The Python documentation has a HOWTO section specifically for
<a href="https://docs.python.org/2/howto/advocacy.html">Python advocacy</a>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://nothingbutsnark.svbtle.com/how-to-argue-for-pythons-use">How to argue for Python’s use</a>
explains that choosing a programming language can be complicated but that
Python is a very good option for many use cases.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://lorenabarba.com/blog/why-i-push-for-python/">Why I Push for Python</a>
explains one professor's rationale for promoting Python to teach programming
to undergraduates.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Resources for Python enterprise advocacy</h3>
<ul>
<li>
<p>CIO Magazine discusses why
<a href="http://www.cio.com/article/2431212/developer/dynamic-languages--not-just-for-scripting-any-more.html">dynamic languages are increasingly being adopted in enterprise environments</a>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>PayPal covers
<a href="https://www.paypal-engineering.com/2014/12/10/10-myths-of-enterprise-python/">10 myths about enterprise Python</a>
via their engineering blog.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>My DjangoCon 2014 talk focused on overcoming false biases against
<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aMtiCX38w20">Python and Django in enterprise environments</a>.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>What else would you like to know about Python?</h2>
<h1>Best Python Resources</h1>
<p>The Python community is amazing at sharing detailed resources and helping
beginners learn to program with the language. There are so many resources
out there though that it can be difficult to know how to find them. </p>
<p>This page aggregates the best general Python resources with descriptions of
what they provide to readers.</p>
<div class="well see-also">
If you prefer to learn by watching videos check out the
<a href="/best-python-videos.html">best Python videos</a>. You may
also be interested in reading about
<a href="/development-environments.html">development environments</a>
to use for coding.
</div>
<h2>New to programming</h2>
<p>If you're learning your first programming language these books were written
with you in mind. Developers learning Python as a second or later language
should skip down to the next section for "experienced developers".</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>To get an introduction to Python, Django and Flask at the same time,
consider purchasing the
<a href="https://www.realpython.com/?utm_source=fsp&utm_medium=promo&utm_campaign=bestresources" onclick="trackOutboundLink('https://www.realpython.com/?utm_source=fsp&utm_medium=promo&utm_campaign=bestresources'); return false;">Real Python</a>
course by Fletcher, Michael and Jeremy.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>If you've never programmed before check out the
<a href="http://learntocodewith.me/getting-started/">Getting Started</a> page on
<a href="http://learntocodewith.me/">Learn To Code with Me</a>
by <a href="https://twitter.com/lebdev">Laurence Bradford</a>. She's done an
incredible job of breaking down the steps beginners should take when
they're uncertain about where to begin.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://learnpythonthehardway.org/book/">Learn Python the Hard Way</a> is a
free book by Zed Shaw.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://www.diveinto.org/python3/">Dive into Python 3</a> is an open source
book provided under the Creative Commons license and available in HTML or
PDF form.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://pymbook.readthedocs.org/en/latest/">Python for You and Me</a> (pym) is
an online book for people completely unfamiliar with the Python programming
language.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://www.swaroopch.com/notes/python/">A Byte of Python</a> is a beginner's
tutorial for the Python language. </p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Code Academy has a <a href="http://www.codecademy.com/tracks/python">Python track</a>
for people completely new to programming.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://opentechschool.github.io/python-beginners/en/index.html">Introduction to Programming with Python</a>
goes over the basic syntax and control structures in Python. The free book
has numerous code examples to go along with each topic.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The O'Reilly book
<a href="http://greenteapress.com/thinkpython/html/index.html">Think Python: How to Think Like a Computer Scientist</a>
is available in HTML form for free on the web.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://anandology.com/python-practice-book/index.html">Python Practice Book</a>
is a book of Python exercises to help you learn the basic language syntax.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Looking for ideas about what projects to use to learn to code? Check out
<a href="https://medium.com/learning-journalism-tech/five-mini-programming-projects-for-the-python-beginner-21492f6ce0f3">this list of 5 programming project for Python beginners</a>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>I wrote a quick blog post on
<a href="http://www.mattmakai.com/learning-python-for-non-developers.html">learning Python</a>
that non-technical folks trying to learn to program may find useful.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>Experienced developers new to Python</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/python/">Learn Python in y minutes</a>
provides a whirlwind tour of the Python language. The guide is especially
useful if you're coming in with previous software development experience
and want to quickly grasp how the language is structured.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://pymbook.readthedocs.org/en/latest/">Python for you and me</a> is an
approachable book with sections for Python syntax and the major language
constructs. The book also contains a short guide at the end to get
programmers to write their first Flask web application.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Kenneth Reitz's
<a href="http://docs.python-guide.org/en/latest/">The Hitchhiker’s Guide to Python</a>
contains a wealth of information both on the Python programming language and the community.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://districtdatalabs.silvrback.com/how-to-develop-quality-python-code">How to Develop Quality Python Code</a>
is a good read to begin learning about development environments,
application dependencies and project structure.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>Beyond the basics</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="http://mirnazim.org/writings/python-ecosystem-introduction/">The Python Ecosystem: An Introduction</a>
provides context for virtual machines, Python packaging, pip, virutalenv
and many other topics after learning the basic Python syntax. </p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The <a href="http://www.reddit.com/r/python">Python Subreddit</a> rolls up great
Python links and has an active community ready to answer questions from
beginners and advanced Python developers alike.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://jessenoller.com/good-to-great-python-reads/">Good to Great Python Reads</a>
is a collection of intermediate and advanced Python articles around the web
focused on nuances and details of the Python language itself.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The blog <a href="http://freepythontips.wordpress.com/">Free Python Tips</a> provides
posts on Python topics as well as news for the Python ecosystem.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://pythonbooks.revolunet.com/">Python Books</a> is a collection of freely
available books on Python, Django, and data analysis.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>Videos, screencasts and presentations</h2>
<p>Videos from conferences and meetups along with screencasts are listed on
the <a href="/best-python-videos.html">best Python videos</a> page.</p>
<h2>Curated Python packages lists</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="https://github.com/vinta/awesome-python">awesome-python</a> is an incredible
list of Python frameworks, libraries and software. I wish I had this
page when I was just getting started. </p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://easy-python.readthedocs.org/en/latest/">easy-python</a> is like
awesome-python although instead of just a Git repository this site is
in the Read the Docs format.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>Newsletters</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="http://www.pythonweekly.com/">Python Weekly</a> is a free weekly roundup
of the latest Python articles, videos, projects and upcoming events.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://pycoders.com/">PyCoder's Weekly</a> is another great free weekly
email newsletter similar to Python Weekly. The best resources are generally
covered in both newsletters but they often cover different articles
and projects from around the web.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://importpython.com/newsletter/">Import Python</a> is a newer newsletter
thank Python Weekly and PyCoder's Weekly. So far I've found this newsletter
covers different sources from other newsletters. It's well worth subscribing
to all three so you don't miss anything.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Those resources should help get you started. What's next?</h3>
<h1>Best Python Videos</h1>
<p>If you prefer to learn Python programming by watching videos then this is the
resource for you. I've watched hundreds of live technical talks and combed
through videos to pick out the ones with great speakers who'll teach you the
most about the language and ecosystem. </p>
<p>This page links to the best free videos as well as other video lists so you
can do your own searching through the huge backlog of conference and meetup
talks from the past several years. </p>
<div class="well see-also">
Be sure to read the
<a href="/best-python-resources.html">best Python resources</a> for
links to books and articles as well as
<a href="/web-frameworks.html">web frameworks</a>
to learn more about web development.
</div>
<h2>Web development with Django, Flask and other frameworks</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/heddle317">Kate Heddleston</a> gave a talk at PyCon 2014
called
"<a href="http://pyvideo.org/video/2591/so-you-want-to-be-a-full-stack-developer-how-to">Full-stack Python Web Applications</a>"
with clear visuals for how numerous layers of the Python web
stack fit together. There are also <a href="https://speakerdeck.com/pycon2014/so-you-want-to-be-a-full-stack-developer-how-to-build-a-full-stack-python-web-application-by-kate-heddleston">slides available from the talk</a>
with all the diagrams.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>My <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s6NaOKD40rY">EuroPython 2014 "Full Stack Python"</a>
talk goes over each topic from this guide and provides context for how the
pieces fit together.
The <a href="http://www.mattmakai.com/presentations/2014-full-stack-python-berlin.html">talk slides</a> are also available.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Kate Heddleston and I gave a talk at DjangoCon 2014 called
<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QrFEKghISEI">Choose Your Own Django Deployment Adventure</a>
which walked through many of the scenarios you'd face when deploying your
first Django website.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The <a href="https://github.com/realpython/discover-flask">Discover Flask</a> series is
a detailed Flask tutorial on video with corresponding code examples on
GitHub.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://pyvideo.org/video/2630/designing-djangos-migrations">Designing Django's Migrations</a>
covers Django 1.7's new migrations from the main programmer
of South and now Django's built-in migrations, Andrew Godwin.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://godjango.com/">GoDjango</a> screencasts and tutorials are free short
videos for learning how to build Django applications.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://gettingstartedwithdjango.com/">Getting Started with Django</a> is a
series of video tutorials for the framework.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The videos and slides from
<a href="http://www.djangounderthehood.com/talks/">Django: Under the Hood 2014</a>
are from Django core commiters and provide insight into the ORM,
internationalization, templates and other topics.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>DjangoCon US videos from
<a href="https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLE7tQUdRKcybbNiuhLcc3h6WzmZGVBMr3">2014</a>,
<a href="http://www.youtube.com/user/TheOpenBastion/videos">2013</a>,
<a href="http://pyvideo.org/category/23/djangocon-2012">2012</a>,
<a href="http://pyvideo.org/category/3/djangocon-2011">2011</a>, as well as<br />
<a href="http://pyvideo.org/category">earlier US and DjangoCon EU conferences</a> are
all available free of charge.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>Core Python language videos</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Jessica McKellar's
<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL_syMmRkoU">Building and breaking a Python sandbox</a>
is a fascinating walk through the lower layers of the Python interpreter.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Brandon Rhodes'
<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fYlnfvKVDoM">All Your Ducks In A Row: Data Structures in the Std Lib and Beyond</a>
goes through how data structures are implemented, how to select a
data structure appropriate to your application and how the list and
dictionary can be used in many situations.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The talk <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZdvpNaWwx24">Python Descriptors</a>
by Simeon Franklin explains the what and why of this core Python language
feature.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>Screencasts and class recordings</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="https://www.neckbeardrepublic.com/">Neckbeard Republic</a> provides free
screencasts for learning intermediate topics. I typically prefer to learn
by reading. However, these videos are helpful in seeing the code on the
screen instead of just looking at static code snippets.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://developers.google.com/edu/python/">Google's Python Class</a> contains
lecture videos and exercises for learning Python.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>While there aren't always live streams, it's worth checking out
<a href="http://www.watchpeoplecode.com/">Watch People Code</a> to see if anyone is
live coding or has a recording of working on a Python project. Even
experienced developers can learn a whole lot from watching other
developer's work on their projects.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>Video compilations</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="http://www.pyvideo.org/">PyVideo</a> organizes and indexes thousands of Python
videos from both major conferences and meetups.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://github.com/makaimc/incredible-technical-speakers">Incredible Technical Speakers</a>
is a repository I put together that features software developer speakers
talking about programming language agnostic topics. The list is intended
to emphasize professional software developers who also have the ability to
engage an audience of peers with an exciting talk.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>What's next after watching Python videos?</h3>
<h1>Development Environments</h1>
<p>A development environment is a combination of a text editor and the Python
interpreter. The text editor allows you to write the code. The interpreter
provides a way to execute the code you've written. A text editor can be
as simple as Notepad on Windows or more complicated as a complete integrated
development environment (IDE) such as
<a href="https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/">PyCharm</a> which runs on any major
operating system.</p>
<h2>Why is a development environment necessary?</h2>
<p>Python code needs to be written, executed and tested to build
applications. The text editor provides a way to write the code. The
interpreter allows it to be executed. Testing to see if the code does what
you want can either be done manually or by unit and functional tests. </p>
<div class="well see-also">
While you're learning about development environments be sure to
check out information on <a href="/vim.html">Vim</a> and
<a href="/emacs.html">Emacs</a>.
</div>
<h2>A development environment example</h2>
<p>Here's what I (the author of Full Stack Python,
<a href="/about-author.html">Matt Makai</a>) use to develop most of my Python
applications. I have a Macbook Pro with Mac OS X as its base operating
system. <a href="/operating-systems.html">Ubuntu 14.04 LTS</a> is virtualized on top
with <a href="https://www.parallels.com/">Parallels</a>. My code is written in
<a href="http://www.vim.org/">vim</a> and executed with the
<a href="https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.7.8/">Python 2.7.x</a> interpreter
via the command line. I use virtualenv to create separate Python interpreters
with their own isolated
<a href="/application-dependencies.html">application dependencies</a> and
<a href="http://virtualenvwrapper.readthedocs.org/en/latest/">virtualenvwrapper</a>
to quickly switch between the interpreters created by virtualenv.</p>
<p>That's a common set up but you can certainly write great code with a much
less expensive set up or a cloud-based development environment.</p>
<h2>Open source development environments</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="http://www.vim.org/">vim</a> is my editor of choice and installed by default
on most *nix systems.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/">emacs</a> is another editor often used
on *nix.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://pydev.org/">PyDev</a> is a Python IDE plug in for
<a href="https://www.eclipse.org/">Eclipse</a>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://www.sublimetext.com/">Sublime Text</a> versions 2 and 3 (currently
in beta) are popular text editors that can be extended with code completion,
linting, syntax highlighting and other features using plugins.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://atom.io/">Atom</a> is an open source editor built by the
<a href="https://github.com">GitHub</a> team.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>Python-specific IDEs</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/">PyCharm</a> is a Python-specific IDE
built on <a href="https://www.jetbrains.com/">JetBrains</a>' platform. There are
free editions for students and open source projects.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://wingware.com/">Wing IDE</a> is a paid development environment with
integrated debugging and code completion.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://komodoide.com/">Komodo</a></p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>Hosted development environment services</h2>
<p>In the past couple of years several cloud-based development environments
have popped up. These can work great for when you're learning or stuck on
a machine with only a browser but no way to install your own software. Most
of these have free tiers for getting started and paid tiers as you scale
up your application.</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="https://www.nitrous.io/">Nitrous.io</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://c9.io/">Cloud9</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://www.terminal.com/">Terminal</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://koding.com/">Koding</a></p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>Development environment resources</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p>If you're considering the cloud-based development environment route, check
out this
<a href="http://readwrite.com/2014/08/14/cloud9-koding-nitrousio-integrated-development-environment-ide-coding">great article comparing Cloud9, Koding and Nitrous.io</a>
by Lauren Orsini. She also explains more about what a cloud IDE is and is
not.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Real Python has an awesome, detailed post on
<a href="https://realpython.com/blog/python/setting-up-sublime-text-3-for-full-stack-python-development/">setting up your Sublime Text 3 environment</a>
as a full-fledged IDE.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The <a href="http://docs.python-guide.org/en/latest/dev/env/">Hitchhiker's Guide to Python</a>
has a page dedicated to development environments.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://pedrokroger.net/choosing-best-python-ide/">Choosing the best Python IDE</a>
is a review of six IDEs. PyCharm, Wing IDE and PyDev stand out above the
other three in this review.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://nafiulis.me/pycharm-the-good-parts-i.html">PyCharm: The Good Parts</a>
shows you how to be more efficient and productive with that IDE if it's
your choice for writing Python code.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>JetBrains' <a href="http://blog.jetbrains.com/pycharm/">PyCharm Blog</a> is required
reading if you're using the IDE or considering trying it.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h1>Vim</h1>
<p>Vim, short for Vi IMproved, is a configurable text editor often used as
a Python development environment. Vim proponents commonly cite the numerous
plugins, Vimscript and logical command language as major Vim strengths.</p>
<h2>Why is Vim a good Python development environment?</h2>
<p>Vim's philosophy is that developers are more productive when they avoid
taking their hands off the keyboard. Code should flow naturally from the
developer's thoughts through the keyboard and onto the screen. Using a mouse
or other perphipheral is a detriment to the rate at which a developer's
thoughts become code.</p>
<p>Vim has a logical, structured command language. When a beginner is learning
the editor she may feel like it is impossible to understand all the key
commands. However, the commands stack together in a logical way so that over
time the editor becomes predictable.</p>
<div class="well see-also">
If you're interested in Vim you'll also want to read about
<a href="/development-environments.html">development environments for coding</a>
and learn
<a href="/why-use-python.html">what makes Python a great programming language</a>.
</div>
<h2>Configuring Vim with a Vimrc file</h2>
<p>The Vimrc file is used to configure the Vim editor. A Vimrc file can range
from nothing in it to very complicated with hundreds or thousands of lines
of configuration commands.</p>
<p>Here's a short, commented example .vimrc file I use for Python development
to get a feel for some of the configuration statements:</p>
<div class="codehilite"><pre><span class="s">" enable syntax highlighting</span>
<span class="n">syntax</span> <span class="n">enable</span>
<span class="s">" show line numbers</span>
<span class="n">set</span> <span class="n">number</span>
<span class="s">" set tabs to have 4 spaces</span>
<span class="n">set</span> <span class="n">ts</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span>
<span class="s">" indent when moving to the next line while writing code</span>
<span class="n">set</span> <span class="n">autoindent</span>
<span class="s">" expand tabs into spaces</span>
<span class="n">set</span> <span class="n">expandtab</span>
<span class="s">" when using the >> or << commands, shift lines by 4 spaces</span>
<span class="n">set</span> <span class="n">shiftwidth</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span>
<span class="s">" show a visual line under the cursor's current line </span>
<span class="n">set</span> <span class="n">cursorline</span>
<span class="s">" show the matching part of the pair for [] {} and ()</span>
<span class="n">set</span> <span class="n">showmatch</span>
<span class="s">" enable all Python syntax highlighting features</span>
<span class="n">let</span> <span class="n">python_highlight_all</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
</pre></div>
<p>Here is how these configuration options look with a dark background on
Mac OS X while editing the markdown for this webpage (how meta!).</p>
<p><img src="theme/img/vim-dark-bg.jpg" width="100%" alt="Vim with basic configuration options on a dark background." class="technical-diagram" style="border-radius: 5px;"></p>
<p>Take a look at another example using these configuration options, this time
with a light background and editing Python code from my
<a href="https://github.com/makaimc/choose-your-own-adventure-presentations">Choose Your Own Adventures Presentations</a>
project.</p>
<p><img src="theme/img/vim-white-bg.png" width="100%" alt="Vim with basic configuration options on a white background." class="technical-diagram" style="border-radius: 5px; border: 1px solid #999;"></p>
<p>The Vimrc file lives under the home directory of the user account running
Vim. For example, when my user account is 'matt', on Mac OS X my Vimrc
file is found at <code>/Users/matt/.vimrc</code>. On Ubuntu Linux my .vimrc file
can be found within the <code>/home/matt/</code> directory. </p>
<p>If a Vimrc file does not already exist, just create it within the user's
home directory and it will be picked up by Vim the next time you open the
editor.</p>
<h2>Vim tutorials</h2>
<p>Vim has a reputation for a difficult learning curve, but it's much easier
to get started with these tutorials.</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="http://vim-adventures.com/">Vim Adventures</a> is a cute, fun browser-based
game that helps you learn Vim commands by playing through the adventure.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://yannesposito.com/Scratch/en/blog/Learn-Vim-Progressively/">Learn Vim Progressively</a>
is a wonderful tutorial that follows the path I took when learning Vim:
learn just enough to survive with it as your day-to-day editor then begin
adding more advanced commands on top.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://danielmiessler.com/study/vim/">A vim Tutorial and Primer</a> is an
incredibly deep study in how to go from beginner to knowledgeable in Vim.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://benmccormick.org/2014/07/02/learning-vim-in-2014-vim-as-language/">Vim as a Language</a>
explains the language syntax and how you can build up over time to master
the editor.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In <a href="http://mislav.uniqpath.com/2011/12/vim-revisited/">Vim: revisited</a> the
author explains his on-again off-again relationship with using Vim. He then
shows how he configures and uses the editor so it sticks as his primary
code editting tool.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>Vim Python IDE bundles and resources</h2>
<p>Once you get comfortable with Vim as an editor, there are several
configuration options and plugins you can use to enhance your Python
productivity. These are the resources and tutorials to read when you're
ready to take that step.</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>The <a href="https://github.com/klen/python-mode">python-mode</a> project is a Vim
plugin with syntax highlighting, breakpoints, PEP8 linting, code completion
and many other features you'd expect from an integrated development
environment.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://github.com/gmarik/Vundle.vim">Vundle</a> comes highly recommended
as a plug-in manager for Vim.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://haridas.in/vim-as-your-ide.html">Vim as Your IDE</a> discusses how to
set up Vim for greater productivity once you learn the initial Vim language
for using the editor.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://unlogic.co.uk/2013/02/08/vim-as-a-python-ide/">Vim as a Python IDE</a>
goes through the steps necessary to make Vim into a more comfortable
environment for Python development.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://stackoverflow.com/questions/9172802/setting-up-vim-for-python">Setting up Vim for Python</a>
has a well written answer on Stack Overflow for getting started with Vim.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>Vim installation guides</h2>
<p>These installation guides will help you get Vim up and running on Mac OS X,
Linux and Windows.</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="http://prioritized.net/blog/upgrading-vim-on-os-x/">Upgrading Vim on OS X</a>
explains why to upgrade from Vim 7.2 to 7.3+ and how to do it using
<a href="http://brew.sh/">Homebrew</a>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The easiest way to install Vim on Windows 7+ is to download and run the
<a href="http://www.vim.org/download.php#pc">gvim74.exe</a> file.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>On Linux make sure to install the
<a href="https://launchpad.net/ubuntu/+source/vim">vim package</a> with
<code>sudo apt-get install vim</code>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>If you're using PyCharm as your IDE you won't need to install Vim as a
separate text editor - instead use the
<a href="https://plugins.jetbrains.com/plugin/164">IdeaVim</a> PyCharm plugin to get
Vim keybindings, visual/insert mode, configuration with ~/.ideavimrc and
other Vim emulation features. </p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>Vimrc resources</h2>
<p>These are a few resources for learning how to structure a .vimrc file. I
recommend adding configuration options one at a time to test them
individually instead of going whole hog with a Vimrc you are unfamiliar with.</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="http://dougblack.io/words/a-good-vimrc.html">A Good Vimrc</a> is a fantastic,
detailed overview and opinionated guide to configuring Vim. Highly
recommended for new and experienced Vim users.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://justin.abrah.ms/vim/vim_and_python.html">Vim and Python</a> shows
and explains many Python-specific .vimrc options.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>This
<a href="https://github.com/amix/vimrc/tree/master/vimrcs">repository's folder with Vimrc files</a>
has example configurations that are well commented and easy to learn from. </p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>Vim Plugin resources</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="http://joelhooks.com/blog/2013/04/23/5-essential-vim-plugins/">5 Essential VIM Plugins That Greatly Increase my Productivity</a>
covers the author's experience with the Vundle, NERDTree, ctrlp, Syntastic
and EasyMotion Vim plugins.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://benmccormick.org/2014/07/21/learning-vim-in-2014-getting-more-from-vim-with-plugins/">Getting more from Vim with plugins</a>
provides a list of plugins with a description for each one on its
usefulness. The comments at the bottom are also interesting as people have
suggested alternatives to some of the plugins mentioned in the post.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://github.com/powerline/powerline">Powerline</a> is a popular statusline
plugin for Vim that works with both Python 2 and 3.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>What do you want to learn about Python development?</h3>
<h1>Emacs</h1>
<p>Emacs is an extensible text editor that can be customized by writing Lisp
code.</p>
<h2>Why is Emacs a good choice for Python coding?</h2>
<p>Emacs is designed to be customized via the built-in Lisp interpreter and
package manager. The package manager, named package.el, has menus for
handling installation. The largest Lisp Package Archive is
<a href="http://melpa.org">Melpa</a>, which provides automatic updates from upstream
sources.</p>
<p>Macros are useful for performing repetitive actions in Emacs. A macro
is just a recording of a previous set of keystrokes that can be replayed
to perform future actions.</p>
<p>Hooks, which are Lisp variables that hold lists of functions to call,
provide an extension mechanism for Emacs. For example,
<code>kill-emacs-hook</code> runs before exiting Emacs so functions can be loaded
into that hook to perform necessary actions before the exiting completes.</p>
<div class="well see-also">
While you're reading about coding Python in Vim be sure to also
learn about which <a href="/web-frameworks.html">web frameworks</a> to
use as well as
<a href="/deployment.html">how to deploy an application</a>.
</div>
<h2>General Emacs resources</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/manual/html_node/emacs/index.html">GNU Emacs Manual</a>
provides an official in-depth review for how to use Emacs.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://emacsredux.com/">Emacs Redux</a> is a blog with tips and tricks for
how to use Emacs effectively.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://emacsrocks.com/">Emacs Rocks</a> is a video tutorial series for Emacs.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://whattheemacsd.com/">What the .emacs.d?!</a> provides a bunch of tiny
optimizations for Emacs' workflow.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>Notable Elisp Packages</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="http://magit.github.io/">Magit</a> allows the user to inspect and modify
Git repositories from within Emacs.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://company-mode.github.io/">company-mode</a> creates a modular in-buffer
completion framework.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://flycheck.github.io/">Flycheck</a> provides syntax checking.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://github.com/proofit404/anaconda-mode/">anaconda-mode</a> is specific
to Python development and allows code navigation, documentation lookup
and code completion. The <a href="http://jedi.jedidjah.ch/en/latest/">jedi</a> library
is used under the hood.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://ternjs.net/">Tern</a> is a stand-alone code-analysis engine for
JavaScript. It can be integrated within a Django project
via the <a href="https://github.com/proofit404/tern-django">tern-django</a> package.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>Popular user configurations</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="https://github.com/bbatsov/prelude">Prelude</a> is an enhanced Emacs
version 24 distribution.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://github.com/purcell/emacs.d">A reasonable Emacs config</a> shows
a batteries-includes Emacs configuration bundle.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://github.com/magnars/.emacs.d">Emacs settings</a> is a repository of
configurations used in the Emacs Rocks screencasts.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="https://github.com/syl20bnr/spacemacs">Spacemacs</a> mashes together Emacs'
extensibility and Vim's ergonomic text editing features.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>What's next once your development environment is set up?</h3>
<h1>Generators</h1>
<p>Generators are a Python core language construct that allow a function's return
value to to behave as an iterator. A generator can allow more efficient
memory usage by allocating and allocating during the context of a large
number of iterations. Generators are defined in
<a href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0255/">PEP255</a> and included in the
language as of Python 2.2 in 2001.</p>
<h2>Python generator resources</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="http://intermediatepythonista.com/python-generators">An introduction to Python generators</a>
by Intermediate Pythonista is a well done post with code examples.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>This blog post entitled
<a href="http://rdrewd.blogspot.com/2014/02/python-generators.html">Python Generators</a>
specifically focuses on generating dictionaries. It provides a good
introduction for those new to Python.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://www.blog.pythonlibrary.org/2014/01/27/python-201-an-intro-to-generators/">Python 201: An Intro to Generators</a>
is another short but informative read with example generators code.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://anandology.com/python-practice-book/iterators.html">Iterators & Generators</a>
provides code examples for these two constructs and some simple explanations
for each..</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The question to <a href="http://stackoverflow.com/questions/1756096/understanding-generators-in-python">Understanding Generators in Python?</a>
on Stack Overflow has an impressive answer that clearly lays out the
code and concepts involved with Python generators.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://www.dabeaz.com/generators/">Generator Tricks for Systems Programmers</a>
provides code examples for using generators. The material was originally
presented in a PyCon workshop for systems programmers but is relevant to
all Python developers working to understand appropriate ways to use
generators.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>What's next after learning about generators?</h3>
<h1>Comprehensions</h1>
<p>Comprehensions are a Python language construct for concisely creating data
in lists, dictionaries and sets. List comprehensions are included in Python 2
while dictionary and set comprehensions were introduced to the language in
Python 3.</p>
<h2>Why are comprehensions important?</h2>
<p>Comprehensions are a more clear syntax for populating conditional data in the
core Python data structures. Creating data without comprehensions often
involves nested loops with conditionals that can be difficult for code
readers to properly evaluate.</p>
<h2>Example code</h2>
<p>List comprehension:</p>
<div class="codehilite"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">double_digit_evens</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">e</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">2</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">e</span> <span class="n">in</span> <span class="n">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">)]</span>
<span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">double_digit_evens</span>
<span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">14</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">18</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">22</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">24</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">26</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">28</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">32</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">34</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">36</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">38</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">40</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">44</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">46</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">48</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">52</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">54</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">56</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">58</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">60</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">62</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">64</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">66</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">68</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">70</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">72</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">74</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">76</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">78</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">80</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">82</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">84</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">86</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">88</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">90</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">92</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">94</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">96</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">98</span><span class="p">]</span>
</pre></div>
<p>Set comprehension:</p>
<div class="codehilite"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="n">double_digit_odds</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="n">e</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">1</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">e</span> <span class="n">in</span> <span class="n">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">)}</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">13</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">15</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">17</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">19</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">21</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">23</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">25</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">27</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">29</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">31</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">33</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">35</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">37</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">39</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">41</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">43</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">45</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">47</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">49</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">51</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">53</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">55</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">57</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">59</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">61</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">63</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">65</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">67</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">69</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">71</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">73</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">75</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">77</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">79</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">81</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">83</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">85</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">87</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">89</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">91</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">93</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">95</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">97</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">99</span><span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
<p>Dictionary comprehension:</p>
<div class="codehilite"><pre><span class="o">>>></span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="n">e</span><span class="o">:</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="mi">10</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">e</span> <span class="n">in</span> <span class="n">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">)}</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="o">:</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="o">:</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="o">:</span> <span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="o">:</span> <span class="mi">40</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="o">:</span> <span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">6</span><span class="o">:</span> <span class="mi">60</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="o">:</span> <span class="mi">70</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="o">:</span> <span class="mi">80</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">9</span><span class="o">:</span> <span class="mi">90</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">10</span><span class="o">:</span> <span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
<h2>Comprehension resources</h2>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Intermediate Python's
<a href="http://intermediatepythonista.com/python-comprehensions">Python Comprehensions</a>
post gives a well written overview of comprehensions for the three core
Python data structures.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The Python 3 Patterns and Idioms site has an overview of
<a href="http://python-3-patterns-idioms-test.readthedocs.org/en/latest/Comprehensions.html">comprehensions</a>
including code examples and diagrams to explain how they work.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://blog.cdleary.com/2010/04/learning-python-by-example-list-comprehensions/">Learning Python by example: list comprehensions</a>
gives an example of an incorrect list comprehension then shows how to
correct its issues.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://www.pythonforbeginners.com/basics/list-comprehensions-in-python">List comprehensions in Python</a>
covers what the code for list comprehensions looks like and gives some
example code to show how they work.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="http://effbot.org/zone/python-list.htm">An Introduction to Python Lists</a>
is a solid overview of Python lists in general and tangentially covers
list comprehensions.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Learn more about data or head back to the intro?</h3>
<h1>Web frameworks</h1>
<p>A web framework is a code library that makes a developer's life easier when
building reliable, scalable and maintainable web applications.</p>
<h2>Why are web frameworks necessary?</h2>
<p>Web frameworks encapsulate what developers have learned over the past twenty
years while programming sites and applications for the web. Frameworks make
it easier to reuse code for common HTTP operations and to structure projects
so developers with knowledge of the framework can more quickly build and
maintain the application.</p>
<h2>Common web framework functionality</h2>
<p>Frameworks provide functionality in their code or through extensions to
perform common operations required to run web applications. These common
operations include:</p>
<ol>
<li>URL routing</li>
<li>HTML, XML, JSON, and other output format templating</li>
<li>Database manipulation</li>
<li>Security against Cross-site request forgery (CSRF) and other attacks</li>
</ol>
<p>Not all web frameworks include code for all of the above
functionality. Frameworks fall somewhere between simply executing a
single use case and attempting to be everything to every developer with
increased complexity. Some frameworks take the "batteries-included" approach
where everything possible comes bundled with the framework while others
have a minimal code library that plays well with extensions.</p>
<p>For example, the Django web application framework includes an
Object-Relational Mapping (ORM) layer that abstracts relational database
read, write, query, and delete operations. However, Django's ORM
cannot work without significant modification on non-relational databases such as
<a href="http://www.mongodb.org/">MongoDB</a>.
Some other web frameworks such as Flask and Pyramid are easier to
use with non-relational databases by incorporating external Python libraries.
There is a spectrum between minimal functionality with easy extensibility and
including everything in the framework with tight integration.</p>
<div class="well see-also">
While you're learning about web frmaeworks you should also find out about
<a href="/deployment.html">web application deployment</a> and
<a href="/application-programming-interfaces.html">web APIs</a>.