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Thirty Years' War outside Europe

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Thirty Years' War outside Europe
Part of Eighty Years' War, Dutch–Portuguese War, Franco-Spanish War, Anglo-Spanish Wars and Portuguese Restoration War

The Iberian Empire around the world, where the main overseas conflicts took place related to the Thirty Years' War
Date1618–1651
Location
Latin America, Southeast Asia, Africa and Indian Ocean
Result

Inconclusive in Land:

Stalemate in Sea:

Territorial
changes
  • Lost of territory dominated by Luso-Asians to the Dutch Empire.
  • Lost of continental territory dominated by the Dutch West India Company.
    • Belligerents

    Iberian Union

    Republic of Genoa
    Braganzist Portugal (since 1640s)
    In Americas:
    In Africa:
    In Asia:
    In Americas:
    In Africa:
    In Asia:
    Commanders and leaders

    Political Leaders

    Political Leaders

    This article refers to the interconnected military, naval, economic, and informational developments that occurred outside Europe during the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). Although the conflict is traditionally portrayed as a Central European and intra-imperial war, several Atlantic, African, and Asian theatres significantly influenced its outcome. These overseas dimensions involved mainly the pro-Habsburg and Catholic Iberian Union (Spain and Portugal) against the anti-Hasburg and Protestant coalition (Dutch Republic, England, and various chartered trading companies), whose colonial rivalries reshaped the economic foundations of European states engaged in the war and were intimately related in the diplomatic and strategical area. This generally involved skirmishes and naval blockades (mainly to seizure colonial outposts or trade ships) rather than large and pitched battles.[1][2][3]

    The Iberian Union around the world, in which succeeded the main oversea conflicts related to the Thirty Years' War

    Historiography

    [edit]

    Since the mid-twentieth century historians have emphasized that the Thirty Years War was not merely a German civil war but concerned much of Europe. Then more recent scholarship has taken the next interpretive step by situating the war within early modern globalization. For this historiography, the Thirty Years' War can be described as the first pan-European colonial war, due to the war's international scale and the involvement of colonial empires (mainly the ones of the Iberian Union[4][5] against the Dutch,[6] English, Danish and French colonial empire), being this oversea conflict so intense that some have dubbed it the true "First World War", preceding the one that occurred in the 20th century.[7][8]

    Thirty Years' War global coalitions from the Iberian Union's diplomatic perspective[9]

    While the wider European significance of the war has since been fully recognized, historians like John Pike,[1] Johannes Müller,[2] Geoffrey Parker,[10] John K. Thornton,[11] Wim Klooster,[12] Peter H. Wilson,[13] Sanjay Subrahmanyam,[14] Jonathan Israel,[15] etc. have only recently begun to place it in a global context by more systematically integrating its various Trans-Oceanic side stages into their analyses. The global perspective emphasizes three main factors:[16][17]

    • Colonial and maritime warfare, especially Dutch–Portuguese and Dutch–Spanish conflicts.
    • Transoceanic bullion flows, particularly the Spanish treasure fleets that financed Imperial and Habsburg armies.
    • A transcontinental news culture, which integrated events from Brazil, the Caribbean, West Africa, and the Indian Ocean into European political discourse.

    Background

    [edit]

    The Iberian Union and global Habsburg warfare

    [edit]
    See also: Spanish treasure fleet; Galeon de Manila; Pax Hispanica; Iberian ship development, 1400–1600; and Age of Discoveries

    In 1580, Philip II of Spain also became ruler of the Portuguese Empire, creating the Iberian Union, the largest connected overseas domain of early modern era which was key in the developing of a Proto-globalization between the Old World and the New World through maritime networks.[18] However, such rapid expansion led to a chronic shortage of soldiers and enormous debts, making Spain reluctant to expand its territory, and thus it dominated a strategy of territorial defense against its enemies.[19] Long-standing commercial rivals, the 1602 to 1663 Dutch–Portuguese War was an offshoot of the Dutch fight for independence from Spain that will merge with the Thirty Years' War.[4] The Portuguese dominated the trans-Atlantic economy known as the Triangular trade, in which slaves were transported from West Africa and Portuguese Angola to work on plantations in Portuguese Brazil, which exported sugar and tobacco to Europe. During the Thirty Years' War, Spain relied heavily on American silver and on Maritime routes to sustain its European armies.[1][20] The vulnerability of these oceanic links (specially from the Portuguese empire in Asia) made the overseas theatres strategically decisive.[5][21]

    Iberian Union main trade routes around the world

    Every year, two Spanish treasure fleets (protected by a convoy system of galeones) sailed from America (Callao or Veracruz) to Seville's Casa de Contratación, transporting Potosi and Zacatecas silver with other colonial products (either local American or even Asiatic from Manila), along the road the ships take scales in ports like Panama, Cartagena de Indias, Havana, Santo Domingo, Santa Cruz de Tenerife. During those scales, they were prey of pirates and corsairs hostile to Spain, being the most dangerous scale the Cuban one in the Bahama Channel. This turned the Philippines, Spanish Main and Canary Islands into important military objectives by the Anti-Habsburg Protestant coalition. Similar destiny had the Portuguese Cafila convoy system that transported their exotic products and slaves from the Factories (across the Indian Ocean and coastal Africa) to Colonial Brazil and Lisbon's Casa da Índia, which turned into military objectives the strategic Portuguese intermediaries of Macau, Malacca, Goa, Ormuz, Cape of Good Hope, Luanda, São Tomé, Gold Coast, Cape Verde, Pernambuco and the Azores. The Spanish overseas possessions were generally better defended than Portuguese ones, which were widely scattered and difficult to reinforce.[13][20]

    Despite the International isolation of the House of Habsburg in the worst years of the Thirty Years' War, the Republic of Genoa still was a loyal ally of Spanish Habsburgs and became the only European power that sent military help to the Spanish Empire in Oversea (mainly due to the investments with Extraterritorial rights from the Genoese Bankers in Portobelo, Panama[22] for the Asiento de Negros).[23][24] Although were not capable to bring significative maid, the Genoese reached so far that they were fighting in the Spanish Philippines at 1630s.[25]

    Union of Arms failed project to consolidate a common Luso-Spanish army at the Thirty Years' War.

    Also, the Iberian Union was a Composite monarchy administrated through a Polysynodial System and under a Legal pluralist Constitution based in Fueros (local Privileges to protect the Customary law of determinated Nations and its Estates of the realm). So, the Kingdoms, States and Lordships that comprised the Hispanic Monarchy were united through aeque principaliter, so the constituent kingdoms continued to be treated as distinct entities which retained their own traditional rights, resulting in the king not having the same powers in every territory, like in the states of the Crown of Aragon and Portugal in which his authority was considerably limited by their laws and institutions (like the Catalan constitutions or Portuguese Cortes), causing Castile to bear the greatest burden of the Monarchy's expenses and war efforts, with its economy ruined by a century of almost continuous colonial wars (did not helped that the Indies fleets often arrived late, and utilities were not what they used to be either).[26][27] That economical decline made Portuguese oversea troops to have Logistical problems for lacking Castilian financiation (similar problem had the Austrian Habsburgs), and the Spanish troops to mutiny on several occasions at the Thirty Years' War due to not receiving their pay, so the Union of Arms was proposed by Count-duke of Olivares to strengthen the collaboration of all the kingdoms of the Hispanic Monarchy in a common policy of military defense contribution, but he failed to gain acceptance from the institutions of each territory due to suspects of Centralisation and attempts to impose Legal Uniformism. This revealed the unstable internal relationship between the Spanish and Portuguese (who feared Castilianization) in developing a consistent foreign policy, which was exploited by Iberian Union's enemies.[28][29]

    The rise of Dutch and English naval power

    [edit]
    See also: Dutch Empire, Dutch East India Company, Dutch West India Company, English colonial empire, and English East India Company

    Before Thirty Years' War, the Dutch Republic and England challenged Iberian monopoly over Atlantic and Indo-Pacific commerce. These conflicts, though rooted in earlier struggles (the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) and the Eighty Years' War), became intertwined with the anti-Habsburg coalitions fighting within the Holy Roman Empire after the end of the Twelve Years' Truce.[30][31][32]

    First wave of colonial chartered companies

    [edit]
    See also: Old imperialism, Chartered companies, and Asia–France relations

    An indirect effect of the Eighty Years' War was the participation of new European powers in the first wave of Colonialism. Due to the successes of the Dutch East India Company in defy the Iberian Mare clausum of Tordesillas and to spread Protestantism in the New World against the "Papist heresies", a lot of Protestant Great powers tried to imitate the Dutch Empire with their system of Chartered companies (in which colonies were projects of Private investor with the protection of the Monarchy as a Shareholder) that seemed to be cheaper for the State and less risky than attempting colonies with direct control and inversion from the Crown Treasury (which was the system applied in the Spanish viceroyalties), desiring to develop Colonial empires capable to military defy the one of the Habsburg Spain. Also France, despite being catholic, imitated the system in an attempt to defy the Papal concession to the Iberian Monarchies as the only ones with rights to spread the Catholic Gospel, while also getting a part of the benefits in the International trade with the Indies. In that spirit were founding the following armored chartered companies in the early XVII century:[2][15]

    While originally were external initiatives that were unrelated to the Thirty Years' War (and even there were inner rivalries, like the Anglo-Dutch,[36] Anglo-French, Franco-Dutch and Dano-Swedish), several political leaders—like Maurice of Nassau, Christian IV of Denmark, Gustavus Adolphus and specially the Cardinal Richelieu—tried to integrate those in the strategic plan of the Anti-Habsburg coallition to develop a common effort to defy Portuguese and Spanish Empire with their Mare clausum monopoly. For example:

    Dutch–Portuguese War warzones. The Groot Desseyn is included.

    The main protagonist of the Anti-Habsburg oversea operations were the Dutch East India Company (VOC), formed to develop trade routes with the East of Cape of Good Hope, and the Dutch West India Company (WIC), formed later to do the same with the West, both to overcome the Insufficient supply of the goods which the Dutch were accustomed to obtain from the Iberian Peninsula. Known by Dutch historians as the 'Great Design' (a military plan developed to conquer Iberian positions in the Atlantic Ocean, both Americans and Africans), control of this trade would not only be extremely profitable but also deprive the Spanish of funds needed to finance their war in the Netherlands. In 1621, the Dutch West India Company was formed to achieve this militar plan to control both the lucrative sugar plantations in Brazil and the Atlantic slave trade. Dutch maritime successes deprived the Spanish monarchy of revenue and ships, indirectly shaping land campaigns in Germany, Italy, the Low Countries and even the Iberian Peninsula.[38] The principal objectives of the Dutch were on eroding Iberian trading capabilities and establishing their own commercial hegemony globally as part of a grand, multi-faceted strategy across Europe and the wider world that was planned to be achieved at the end of the Twelve Years' Truce. Such truce did not halt Dutch commercial and colonial expansion in the Caribbean and specially the East Indies,[39] even though Spain had tried to impose the dissolution of the VOC as a condition of the treaty. The Dutch Republic's minor concessions about the elimination of plans to create a Dutch West India Company and a halt to Portuguese encroachment in Asia were coming to an end, now with the support of France and England at the beginning of the Thirty Years' War to execute its aggressive campaign of commercial expansion to the New World by using privateers. By the time the truce ended, the Dutch were the aggressors in this global war for commercial interests; the initiative for armed conflict almost always came from the Dutch side, taking advantage of the emphasis on a defensive strategy among the Iberians due to the economic problems of the Hispanic monarchy.[15]

    Knowing of the Dutch plans to strengthen their relationships with the enemies of Spain (French–Habsburg and Anglo-Spanish rivalry) and the Catholic Church (Protestant Europe like the Nordic countries), the Iberian Union tried to apply a foreign policy of Divide and conquer by wanting to develop an Anglo-Spanish alliance against the Dutch, or a Franco-Spanish alliance against the Anglo-Dutch.[40] However, the International isolation of the Habsburg monarchy, the Anti-Catholic sentiment in English Parliament and the Anti-Spanish sentiment there and the French court was too powerful. Also did not helped the inner struggles between the Council of Castile (more pragmatic with the transit in International waters and condescent with the English as lesser evil than the Dutch) and the Council of Portugal (more rigid in practising Mare clausum in Maritime law and belicist with both the English and Dutch), which could not agree in a common Foreign policy due to the Portuguese's misguided obsession of restoring the Tordesillas duopoly and their naval supremacy in Asia against Northern Europeans and the local Great Powers like the Gunpowder empires (also did not want to cede any part of the Indian trade to the Castilians nor the entrance of their missionaries in the padroado in case of a Luso-Castillian joint force appeared in the Eastern Hemisphere), as also Spanish attempts to suppress Goa municipal council to strengthen Hispanic Monarchy institutionality, like the Viceroy of Portuguese India, and dismiss Luso-Asians Jesuits authority and incomes.[41][29][20]

    Americas

    [edit]
    See also: Piracy in the Atlantic World, Piracy in the Caribbean, Piracy in the Bay of Honduras, and Piracy on Lake Nicaragua
    Dutch colonization of the Americas at the time

    In the colonies located at the Americas (better occupied and institutionalized), the military tactics of the Anti-Habsburg coalition were mainly limited to supporting the privateering of their captains in the coastal zones of Ibero-America (mainly the Caribbean Sea), in order to drain the Spanish treasury and fill their own.[42] The main exception were the attempts to occupy the Lesser Antilles, North America, Southern Chile and specially Northeast Brazil, with some Indigenous help.[43][44] The Dutch prince Maurice of Nassau believed that the ruin of Spain would be inevitable if any of its rich American colonies were taken from it, so in 1623-24 developed 2 big expeditions, one against the Viceroyalty of Peru and the other to Portuguese Brazil, the later with a bigger success.[2][45]

    Northeast Brazil

    [edit]
    Main articles: Dutch invasions of Brazil and Insurrection of Pernambuco
    Map of Dutch and Portuguese struggles in Brazil

    During the early phases of the Thirty Years' War, the Dutch West India Company targeted Portuguese Brazil, seizing Salvador da Bahia in 1624[46] and later capturing Pernambuco (1630), which was not returned until 1654. This led to the stablishment of Dutch Brazil, being its capital Mauritsstad (modern Recife), and conquering more territory in the Campaign of Porto Calvo while also gaining some indigenous allies like the Tupi people and the Tarairiú.[47][48] In consecuence, Portuguese colonists, Mestiços (mainly related to Potiguara indigenous) and Afro-Brazilian militias mounted a Catholic resistance against the Dutch West India Company (despite John Maurice of Nassau's pragmatic tolerance, its pro-Jewish and pro-Protestant politics angered the Brazilian catholic population that was economically harmed), while the Spanish Navy sent militar aid in operations like the Jornada dos Vassalos, the Battle of Abrolhos, Siege of Salvador (1638), Battle of Pernambuco (1640), etc. in which arrived Castilian, Portuguese, and Neapolitan joint forces to aid Brazilians and secure Amazon River from foreign incursions that could menace Peruvian Amazonia.[49][50] Although Portugal was formally part of the Habsburg monarchy at this time, these colonial losses damaged the supply networks of the Iberian Empire, while the Brazilian production (mainly Sugar industry) financed much of the Dutch military budget during the 1630s and early 1640s.[1][51]

    After the State of Brazil recognised John IV of Braganza in 1641, succeeded local Austracistas intrigues from Brazilian nobility to restore the Suzerainty to the Hispanic Monarchy (at least of Southern Brazil and Rio de Janeiro) in exchange of some privileges from the Governorate of the Río de la Plata in matter of supply of indigenous Guaraní workers, military defense against Dutch Brazil and autonomy. However the court of Madrid suspected in the intention of Bandeirantes in turning indigenous (under Castilian protection) into slaves and expel Spanish colonists from Río de la Plata, like have been done by luso-Brazilians in former Spanish Guayrá (cutting off Paraguay from its litoral in modern Paraná).[52]

    Southern Chile and Peru

    [edit]
    Main articles: Dutch expedition to Peru and Dutch expedition to Valdivia
    Viceroyalty of Peru territory at the time, including Callao and Valdivia locations

    The Dutch prepared an expedition against the Viceroyalty of Peru, in which a Dutch conquest of Chile (or at least consolidate a base in Chiloé or the Magellans Strait) was considered as an imperative intermediate step to prepare for a larger invasion of Peru (the jewel of the Spanish crown in South America). Due to the Destruction of the Seven Cities at the Arauco War in 1598, the Anti-Spanish coalition developed a special interest to conquer Southern Chile, which had been deserted by Habsburg Spain after the Disaster of curalaba and also was controlled by hostile Mapuches and Huilliches who could be potential allies against the Spaniards from the Captaincy General of Chile. Such special interest was increased by the Dutch after the Bombardment of Valparaiso (1614) by Joris van Spilbergen, since they knew firsthand the Spanish weakness in the region, and even defeated the Spaniards leaded by Rodrigo de Mendoza at Cañete (Peru), and then sack Paita (the goal of Spilbergen there was privateering than colonization).[53]

    With such goal in mind, an expedition of 11 navies with 2000 soldiers was launched in 1623 by Jacques l'Hermite (a French) from Amsterdam to Southern Pacific Ocean, reaching Mala (Peru) on May 5 of 1624 and then attacking Callao from May 9 by establishing a military blockade between San Lorenzo Island and La Punta to the mouth of the Rimac River (since the attempts to land in Callao and the attacks carried out on that port had not been successful). However, due to logistical problems and the Viceroy Diego Fernández de Córdoba's staunch resistance to preventing them from landing to resupply, the Dutch decided to withdraw in September 9 after the excessive number of deaths (including L'ermite) from famine and disease among the crew.[54] The rest of the expedition, leaded now by Hugo Schapenham and Julius Wilhelm Van Verschoor, attacked Pisco, Acapulco and the Spanish East Indies until reaching Batavia.[55]

    Hendrick Brouwer and Elías Herckmans at Valdivian forests, stablishing alliances with Mapuche and Huilliche mounting their Chilihueque (Lama Araucanus)

    Another attempt of the Dutch was done when John Maurice of Nassau sent in 1643 an expedition to Valdivia leaded by Hendrik Brouwer, who founded the colony of Brouwershaven in the ruins of Valparaíso, with the goal to conquer the Valdivia River valley. However, logistic problems made the Dutch colony inviable and were easily expelled.[56]

    Spanish Main and West Indies

    [edit]
    See also: Anglo-Spanish War (1625–1630), Battle in the Bay of Matanzas, Fort Amsterdam (Curaçao), Capture of Tortuga, and Iberian capture of Providencia
    Spanish West Indies and Spanish Main

    Multiple confrontations in the Caribbean—such as Dutch, English, and French raids on Spanish settlements between New Spain and New Granada—further weakened the Habsburg maritime system. These engagements contributed to the progressive erosion of Spain's Atlantic hegemony during the period, as Dutch, English and French privateers used the war to attack Spanish shipping under legal ambiguity. One of the most consequential overseas events was the 1628 capture of the Spanish treasure fleet by Dutch admiral Piet Pieterszoon Heyn in the bay of Matanzas (Cuba). The loss of American bullion was widely reported in German newspapers and perceived by contemporaries as having direct repercussions for Spanish military finance in Europe.[2]

    The Dutch West India Company succeeded in the Capture of Saint Martin (1633) and briefly occupied San Juan (Puerto Rico) in 1625, although most of the operations were focused in raid operations, like the Jan Janszoon van Hoorn's expedition of 1633 in Central America or the Expedition to the Unare in Venezuela. The English empire also take advantage of the Dutch-Spanish War by declaring war over Spain (the excuse was an English intervention to support Frederick V, son-in-law of James VI and I, against Habsburg Spain in the Palatinate campaign) to occupy strategic island and enclaves in the Caribbean like St. Kitts (in 1624, with the help of French), Barbados (in 1627), Nevis (in 1628), the Mosquito Coast of Nicaragua (in 1630s), and modern Belize (in 1642).[31]

    Map of Fadrique de Toledo's expedition to Saint Kitts and Nevis, preventing England and France from establishing a foothold in the Caribbean

    However the Spaniards expelled English of St. Kitts in 1629 (in which the Kalinago indigenous people helped the Spaniards, seeing them as liberators from the Anglo-French Slavers) by taking advantage of Anglo-French struggles for the division of the island,[57] and then the English failed in stablishing a colony in Providencia (modern Colombia) after the Iberian capture of 1641. Also the French colonists tried to take advantage of the Anglo-Dutch-Iberian conflicts, but were not as successfully, settling in Tortuga on modern Haiti after the expulsion from St. Kitts in 1629 (desiring), but were expelled from there in 1635 by the Spaniards from Santo Domingo.[30] Despite the military successes of late 1620s and early 1630s, the Spaniards did not leave a permanent military garrison on Saint Kitts, Nevis or Tortuga, so the English and French returned later and intensified their colonization efforts in the Caribbean, focusing on the Bahamas and Saint-Domingue.[58]

    The Fogel Grip of the 1st Swedish expedition to North America in 1637-38, leaded by Peter Minuit and Måns Nilsson Kling, sacked some Spanish galleons near Saint Kitts to gain provisions.[59][60] Also the Couronian colonizers at Tobago had some skirmishes with the colony of Spanish Trinidad (ally with local Kalinagos) during late 1630s and early 1640s, until Cornelius Caroon consolidated a colony in 1643.[61]

    Africa

    [edit]
    Portuguese Empire in Africa

    In Africa there were mostly Anglo-Dutch raids against Portuguese Africans bases in the Coasts and Islands of the continent, while also some skirmishes between the Iberians versus the Ottomans and Danish-Norwegian (allies of the Anti-Habsburg Coalition). Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe and Portuguese Cape Verde suffered most of those raids by Privateers.[31] However, the Dutch West India Company developed bigger plans to conquer the Slave Coast of West Africa and Portuguese Angola to control the Transatlantic Slave Trade.

    Northern Africa

    [edit]
    See also: Christianshavn Incident, Anglo-Moroccan alliance, Bombardment of Salé (1628), and Battle of Larache (1631)

    North Africa became an important region for Habsburg Spain and Protestant Anti-Habsburgs from early 1600s, since the Expulsion of the Moriscos (as the Moriscos became refugees and corsairs across the Maghreb) and the arrival of Anglo-Dutch corsairs (interested to attack Iberian Peninsula during Eighty Years' War), being a Northern Invasion for the local Berbers. On 1610s was conquered Larache and Medhya as Plazas de soberanía (under Duke of Medina Sidonia captaincy and Mercedarian patronage)[62] to counter the Anglo-Dutch raids and for a possible conquest of Morocco and Algeria.[63] Despite, at the renewal of Flanders campaign during 1620s, the Castilian interest in the Mediterranean and Africa was marginalized in preference of North Sea and Northern Europe, being the Portuguese the ones focused in the region due to their economical interests in the Near East, although a lot of renegades from Ottoman Africa offered their services of spionage to the Iberian Union.[64] Simultaneously, the Ottoman Empire (from the Barbary Coast) and Venice were interested in supporting the Barbary corsairs from Morocco to challenge the Iberian Sphere of influence in the Mediterranean.[65][66]

    Iberian Union possessions in North Africa
    Saadi Sultanate at early 1600s

    On early years of the 1625–1630 Anglo-Spanish War, Charles I of England sent diplomatic missions to Morocco (at the time in Civil War) to involucrate them in the Thirty Years' War and join the Anti-Habsburg Spain coalition, although the Cádiz expedition (1625) convince Moroccans to do not accept the offer, while their current situation of anarchy since the death of Ahmed al-Mansur in 1603 made imprudent to enter in conflict with the Spanish Empire (which was a mediator between different warlords). Despite, the Mujahidin and Hornachero warlord Sidi Al-Ayyashi (head of state of the Republic of Salé, in rebellion against pro-Spanish Saadi Sultans) in May 9 of 1627 accepted an offer of English alliance for 10 years, in which they used Anglo-Turkish piracy tactics, tried to capture Spanish Mehdya in 1628 and fortified Salé in 1637.[67][68] Then the Moroccan ambassador Jawdar ben Abdellah reached another alliance with England in 1637 to support Mohammed esh-Sheikh (allied with France and with Netherlands[69]) against other Moroccan claimants and Marabouts (someones backed by the Iberian Union Habsburgs, like the Saadi of Marrakesh or the Moriscos in Salé).[70][62]

    During the Portuguese Restoration War, Tangier and Ceuta make allegiance to Habsburg Spain and rejected John IV of Braganza attempts to be recognised. However, a 1643 Braganzist Rebellion in Tangier forced such colony to secede from the Hispanic Monarchy and be annexed by the reconstituted Portuguese Monarchy,[71] while Ceuta until today is a Spanish territory (despite some Portuguese conspiracies in 1641). This loyalty from Portuguese plazas at Morocco was influenced by their dependences in Subsidies from Andalusia and attempted negotiations from Braganzist Junta of Portugal to abandon those to Saadi Sultanate in exchange of Moroccan support in the European conflict (John IV and Cardinal Richelieu in 1640-42 tried to convince Moroccans to invade Spain and instigate an Andalusian rebellion like the Catalonian one).[62] During those years, the Plazas de soberanía were occasionally raided by Muslim warlords or the Anti-Habsburg allies, taking advantage of Logistical problems.[72] Other minor confrontations involved some skirmishes at the Canary Islands in which the Spaniards tried to increased the regulations over the entrancy of English, Dutch, French, Ottoman, Moroccan, German, Swedish or Danish navies (like the 1640 Christianshavn Incident), avoiding them to raid those for piracy[73][74][75] or use the islands as a scale to reach the West or East Indies and so sabotage their Colonialist projects, fearing an occupation than turn the islands into bases (like briefly did Pieter van der Does in 1599).[76] At the end, it was a Pyrrhic victory for Spain by maintaining its control in the Strait of Gibraltar (avoiding the creation of an English or Dutch colony against Spain) and not losing territories (even gaining enclaves in North Africa) at the cost of being severely damaged the Mediterranean fleet (starting with 75 vessels in 1619 to 26 vessels in 1648) and having supply problems.[63]

    Western Africa

    [edit]
    See also: Dutch Gold Coast, Portuguese Gold Coast, English expedition to the Gambia River (1618), Battle of Elmina (1625), and Battle of Elmina (1637)

    The struggle for control of West African (mainly the ports in the Gold Coast, modern Ghana) affected the Atlantic slave trade, which was economically vital for the economy of Habsburg Portugal. The disruption of these routes undermined Portuguese Brazil and thereby the Portuguese segment of the Spanish Habsburg world monarchy, indirectly constraining funds available for the Habsburg land war in Germany. Although the Portuguese initially won the 1618 English expedition to the Gambia and the Battle of Elmina (1625), the Dutch gains at the Battle of Elmina (1637) and the Battle of Axim (1642) collapsed the Portuguese Gold Coast and strengthened both the Dutch West India Company (creating the colony of Dutch Gold Coast to connect with Dutch Brazil slavers) and the Dutch Republic state treasury, something heavily needed for their War in Flanders.[77] Simultaneously succeeded a corsair war in the region between Portuguese and Dutch, this ones allied with Lançados settlers and Privateers of Sephardic origin that were renegades of the Iberian Union.[78]

    Central Africa

    [edit]
    Main articles: Kongo-Portuguese War of 1622, Filips van Zuylen's campaign against Luanda, Capture of Luanda, Battle of Kombi, and Recapture of Angola
    Map of Kongo and neighbour states.
    Map of Portuguese Angola

    Since 1511, the Kingdom of Kongo developed a pact of confederation with the Portuguese Empire, which turned Kongo into a military objective for the enemies of Portugal (being raided by the Dutch initially).[79] The early colony of Portuguese Angola depended a lot in alliances with local rulers at the east of Luanda (mainly the Kingdom of Ndongo) to reach the Hinterland and benefit of the trade of the Congo Basin.[13] Discovering this Portuguese dependency in local rulers after the news of Kongo victory at 1623 Battle of Mbanda Kasi (a revenge over Portuguese incursions at Mbumbi), the Dutch developed an Anti-Portuguese alliance between them, Kingdom of Ndongo and the Kingdom of Loango to expel the Portuguese from the region and stablish a Dutch colony there.[80][81] Also influenced in Dutch intervention that Castilians were banned by Kingdom of Portugal to intervene in Aethiopia (Africa south of Canary Islands) according to the Tordesillas treaty and Cortes of Tomar that were Fundamental laws of the Iberian Union.[82]

    Initially, the Dutch failed on 1624 during the invasions of Filips van Zuylen and Piet Hein to aid Pedro II of Kongo's Angolan Wars (although the Dutch suffered treason by Garcia I of Kongo), focusing then on consolidate the Dutch conquest of Brazil and raid the Spanish Main before other African empress. Despite, the Dutch's luck changed in 1641 when they seized Portuguese slave trading hubs in Angola and São Tomé (after Capture of Luanda) with support from Dutch Brazil and the local kingdoms of Kongo leaded by Garcia II of Kongo (who restored the Dutch-Kongo alliance to rebel against Daniel da Silva) and Ndongo leaded by Queen Nzinga (whose position was threatened by Portuguese expansion), the last one being the mastermind behind the largest anti-colonial alliance of Angolan states (between Matamba, Ndongo and Kasanje, then the chiefdoms of Quiassama, Dembos and Congo Basin). The Portuguese now faced attacks from the Ndongo from the east, the Kongo from the north, the Dutch from the west coming by sea, and the Quiassama tribes from the south in the corridor between the Cuanza and Bengo rivers, concluding in the Battle of Kombi.[38][83] However, the Portuguese recover the initiative after getting reinforcement from Portuguese Brazilians while also achieving a peace agreement and alliances with locals like the kingdom of Kasanje (which, aside the Portuguese control of Caconda and Massangano, prived the Dutch to reach the Hinterland and buy Slaves to African lords), getting the Portuguese to Recapture Angola at 1648.[84]

    East Africa

    [edit]
    See also: Capture of Mombasa and Somali–Portuguese conflicts

    East Africa was an important region for Portuguese Empire due to being a necessary step to reach Indian Ocean and for the Ottomans was relevant to protect the Bab el-Mandeb Strait and impede Iberians to reach Red Sea. Despite the small intervention of the Ottomans in the Thirty Years' War in Eastern Europe, they were tacitly allied to the Protestant Anti-Habsburg Coalition and sought to help the Dutch Empire and the French in the name of their alliance, as also the formal state of Spanish-Ottoman war since 1515 and to oppose the Habsburg–Persian alliance.

    Also there was a brief Spanish-Ottoman proxy conflict in the Ethiopian Empire during 1630s, in which the attempts of the Iberian-backed Jesuits to convert Ethiopians from Ethiopian Orthodox to Coptic Catholics through the pro-Iberian Susenyos I caused a Coptic Oriental Orthodox reaction leaded by the Anti-Catholic Fasilides (with help of Ottoman Habesh and other neighbour Islamic sultanates), who won a war of succession in 1632. At the end, the Catholic Patriarch, Afonso Mendes, and the Jesuits were banned and their properties confiscated in 1634. Mendes tried to convince Philip IV of Spain until 1638 to launch an invasion of Ethiopia to end the Persecution of Catholics in Abyssinia, but that solicitation was rejected due to the resistance of Portuguese Goa to co-operate with Spaniards, as also the fear of open another war front for Habsburg Spain at the Thirty Years' War or to ruin the Holy See–Spain relations due to the increasement of Franciscan anti-Jesuitism.[29]

    South Africa

    [edit]

    At the time, the region of Southern Africa was under the Portuguese Sphere of influence, specially through their Factory at Cape of Good Hope to secure the travel between Atlantic and Indian Ocean. In consequence, the Anti-Habsburg Protestant coalition tried to disrupt the Iberian reinforcements and shipping between Europe and Asia through attacks on Portuguese shipping around the Cape. The Dutch East India Company since early 1600s made constant raids against the Iberian navies in the region to interrupt the Carreira da Índia route and to secure their own travel routes to the Eastern Hemisphere,[85] and when the Twelve Years' Truce ended, the newly formed Dutch West India Company joined to those raids to consolidate their own participation in the Atlantic slave trade.[86]

    Asia and Oceania

    [edit]
    Main article: Dutch–Portuguese War
    Main bases of the Dutch East Indies in the Far East[87]

    In Asia and Oceania, the Dutch East India Company (VOC), through the main bases in Surat (in India) and Batavia (in Java), and the English East India Company in lesser extent, fought the Portuguese Estado da Índia and the Spanish Captaincy General of Philippines for dominance over Indonesian and Indian Ocean spice routes.[40][88] Battles were fought for rich colonies across a vast area such as Macau, the East Indies, Sri Lanka, Formosa (Taiwan), the Philippines, among others, in which notable confrontations included the struggles over Portuguese Malacca and Portuguese Ceylon.[89] Although geographically distant, these victories increased Dutch commercial profits through Piracy in Asia[90] and weakened the Portuguese Crown at a time when Portugal's resources were tied to Habsburg war aims.[91] This also perjudicated the Portuguese economy (who suffered an increasement in taxes to compensate the colonial losses) and influenced in the causes of the Portuguese Restoration War.[20][92] The importance of this Eastern Hemisphere theater was that the Anti-Habsburg coalition, leaded by the Anglo-Dutch, wanted to put an end to the Iberian's Mare clausum based in Tordesillas treaty's Papal concessions for an exclusive Portuguese sphere of influence in the Indo-Pacific, which was used to exclude other European Powers to participate in a free Maritime trade. Iberians justified this in Anti-Protestantism by securing Catholic monopoly in Asian people's Conversion to Christianism.[31][93] However, due to the Spanish-Portuguese rivalry, despite the uneasy partnership, this campaigns became the most difficult for the Spanish Habsburgs in matter of Logistics, and the most fragile politically for the Iberian Union.[94][29] A great flaw of Portuguese military in the East was that the eastern Indian Ocean (Gulf of Bengal, Malay archipelago and South China Sea) was under a minimum control from Portuguese India authorities, depending a lot in private initiatives, and also maintaining an inner rivalry with Spanish Philippines.[95]

    Persian Gulf

    [edit]
    See also: Portuguese-Safavid conflicts, Anglo-Persian capture of Qeshm, Anglo-Persian capture of Hormuz, Battle off Hormuz (1625), Battle off Jask, Loss of the Lion (1625), and Anglo-Portuguese rivalry in the Persian Gulf
    Main bases of the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf

    Since the XVI Century, the Portuguese dominated the Persian Gulf, initially to secure positions to attack Basra Eyalet at the Ottoman–Portuguese confrontations, but then to control trade between Safavid Iran and Omani Empire with Eurasia and convert Middle Easterns to Roman Catholicism.[96] The English East India Company, though less directly involved in the continental conflict, contributed to the general pressure on Portuguese trade networks through competition in Surat, the Persian Gulf, and Southeast Asia. This led to English intrigues against Portuguese presence in Asia, which would cause the 1621-1625 "Crisis of Hormuz" in the Iberian Union after the successes of the English East India Company to expel Portuguese from Qeshm and Hormuz Island in exchange of developing commercial Iran–England relations with the Safavids. All of this events were a reaction to Ruy Freire de Andrade's 1619 Preventive attack (at the Baloch–Portuguese conflicts against Piracy in the Persian Gulf) in Qeshm to expel the English through a reckless tactic of crossing Safavid coastal lands to Encircle the English while briefly closing maritime communications between Iran and the Strait of Hormuz (violating Safavid Sovereignty to do so). However, the plan would only succeed if the English naval presence in the Persian Gulf was annihilated, preventing them from seeking an alliance with the angered Safavids (who lacked of an Iranian navy and would be forced to accept the Portuguese terms to restore their territories) for a certain revenge that actually happened in the Anglo-Persian capture of Qeshm and of Hormuz on 1621–22, in which the survivor English ships transported the Iranian land army to restore their Suzerainty in Qeshm and then expel the Portuguese from Southern Iran at 1625.[97][98] The Portuguese in vengeance started to support Ottoman Iraq against Safavid Iraq at the Ottoman–Persian War (1623–1639), sending their armada to the 1624 Siege of Baghdad (being rewarded with a Factory),[99] and also developed an alliance with the Imamate of Oman in the other side of Arabian Gulf to counter Shah Abbas I's expansionism.[100]

    Battle off Hormuz (1625) between Anglo-Dutch and Iberian Union forces

    Despite that the Council of Portugal desired the formation of a Castilian-Portuguese joint force to retake Ormuz and declare war over Iran, the Hispanic Monarchy in the Junta of Persia priorized a diplomatic approach, not wanting to harm the Habsburg–Persian alliance (necessary for the balance of power in the Indo-Mediterranean against the Ottoman Caliphate),[101] which angered the Portuguese, who ignored the deplorable state of the finances of Portugal and Castile (and so, the logistical difficulty to defy the naval and economic power of the North European merchant companies, as well as the military power of the local Great powers like Abbas the Great's Iran), which were the arguments offered by the Council of Castile in avoiding to start a war with the Anglo-Iranians that would isolate more the Habsburgs in a critical situation like the Thirty Years' War.[41][29] In the other hand, although the English monarchy was not originally involved and initially George Villiers considered to demand the EIC for threatening Ibero-English relations (as there was not a formal Declaration of war yet due to the English doubts about whether to intervene in the Thirty Years' War or not and do the Spanish match against Franco-Dutch alliance),[102] he and King James I were bribed with 10,000 pounds to get Diplomatic protection and support in establishing a monopoly over Persian silk trade on the Cape route (originally offered by the Shah to Spain, although Spaniards were not interested), which soured relations between both monarchies for such conspiracy against Iberian monopoly, leading to the political tensions of 1625[103][104] and then the English intervention in the Eighty Years' War (1621–1648) by the approachment between the Crown and the House of Commons (dominated in the 1624 4th Parliament of King James I by EIC traders and Protestants hostiles to Iberians).[10] The next engagement was the Battle off Hormuz (1625) in which Portuguese stabilized their control over the Persian Gulf and reached a truce with Safavids but with heavy costs and without being capable to impede the arrival of non-Portuguese European merchants from the EIC and the VOC since 1629.[105] Also the Dutch take advantage of the English victories among the Safavid dynasty (who preferred the Protestants over Catholics due to not having pretentions of Evangelisation nor spreach their Western culture, only wanting to trade)[106] by developing trade agreements and stablishing their own Factories in the region.[107][108]

    India and Sri Lanka

    [edit]
    Main articles: Sinhalese–Portuguese conflicts, Ove Gjedde's Expedition, Roland Crappé's raids on Portuguese colonies, and Conquest of Koneswaram Temple
    See also: Battle of Goa (1638), Action of 30 September 1639, Siege of Galle (1640), and Conflict between Willem Leyel and Bernt Pessart
    Ove Gjedde's Expedition in South Asia.
    Sri Lanka at the Thirty Years' War and the clash between Portuguese Ceylon and Danish India.

    Since the arrival of the Portuguese presence at Sri Lanka in 1518, there was an intermittent conflict in which the local powers (like Jaffna, Kandy, among others) clashed with Portuguese Ceylon, who take advantage of the rivalries and animosities among the Sinhalese kingdoms. Eventually, European Powers hostile to Habsburgs arrived in the region and tried to stablish alliances and agreements with those Anti-Portuguese locals at early 1600s, mainly Dutch during Eighty Years' War. However, after the Portuguese conquest of the Jaffna kingdom, the Lusitan hegemony was consolidated by late 1610s. So, the Kingdom of Kandy sought help from the VOC and briefly from the Danish East India Company (ally of Dutch) at the 1618-22 Ove Gjedde's Expedition.[14]

    The Raja of Kandy, Senarath Adahasin, convinced Crappé to declare war against the Portuguese in 1619, which lead to a militar campaign at the Coromandel Coast (mainly Karaikal) and Northern Sri Lanka (mainly Jaffna) that also involucrated the Thanjavur Nayak kingdom in the side of Dano-Dutch Protestants (in which was erected Fort Dansborg after the Tranquebar Treaty of 1620 with Raghunatha Nayak, which gave birth to Danish India). Although the Danish offensive was a failure, the Portuguese launched a new campaign in 1622 to get rid off them definitively from Trincomalee, in which another consequence was the destruction of the Hindu Koneswaram Temple (occupied by Danes since May 1620).[109]

    Despite the Danish defeat, the Kandyans defeated Portugal at Randeniwela (in which a lot of pro-Portuguese natives revolted) and at Gannoruwa. Then Rajasinha II in 1635-38 made made an alliance with Adam Westerwolt that would conclude in the Siege of Galle (1640) in which Dutch Ceylon was formed and Portuguese declined in the region (leading to the end of the Dutch-Kandyan alliance, as the Sinhalese people did not want other colonialism).[109] At the same years, at the Indian subcontinent, happened Iberian-Protestant clashes like the 1621-23 Anglo-Dutch raids in Western India,[110] Adam Westerwolt would launch a blockage of Goa which would climate in the battles of Battle of Goa (1638) and the Battle of Mormugão (1639), the latter would result in his death. Although the VOC succeeded in doing Piracy raids against Portuguese India and even periodically blockaded Goa since 1603 to 1644 (preventing large merchant ships from leaving Goa to Lisbon, or to sent military aid to Malacca or Ceylon),[111] the Dutch failed in conquer the Jewel of Portuguese presence in Asia despite having help of local powers like the Sultanate of Bijapur.[112][113] However, the Dutch Bengal did other successes by blocking trade between Portuguese factories in Malabar Coast and the ones in Ming China, isolating Goa from Macau by late 1620s.[21]

    At the end, the Dutch captured the Portuguese settlements in Galle, Trincomalee, Batticaloa, Negombo and Colombo in Sri Lanka; and the Portuguese factories in Thoothukudi, Negapattinam, Kollam, Kodungallur, Kannur and Kochi in India.[114] In the other hand, after the Ormuz and Ceylon defeats (losing Cinnamon's monopoly), the Estado da India entered in a political crisis (hiding the defeats against the Anglo-Dutch, fearing the crowds and inner fights), generating complaints in Portugal against the corruption and vices of the arrogant Fidalgo authorities at Goa (obsessed in Militarist and Intimidation to preserve monopoly than Diplomatic approach and Economical concessions to some enemies for peace) and their rejection to let Castilians to intervene through the Union of Arms or to open trade with the EIC or VOC (proposed by Castile to reach a good peace to preserve the remnant territories in the East), causing the Spaniards to accuse them of demanding everything from Spanish Empire without offering anything to resolve their crisis due to their disloyalty and incapability of reforming the "drain" that Portuguese Asia represented, increasing the inner tensions in the Iberian Union that lead to Portuguese Independence. Brief solutions were the Luso-English truce of 1634 at Surat (consequence of the 1630 Peace of Madrid) and the establishment of the Portuguese East India Company to let non-Portuguese capitals (ally of Habsburgs) participate in Goa and extract more benefits from India, but the lack of support from Private business and Luso-Asians merchants, as also Anti-Jewish laws and Fuero regulations, led to its downfall. A 1640 proposal to open Free trade between Portuguese India and the rest of the Spanish Empire to save the Iberian-Asian commerce was rejected by the Luso-Indians authorities and was a reason for them to support the Forty Conspirators and acclaim the Braganzas in September 9 of 1641 (changing side in the Thirty Years' War).[29]

    East Indies

    [edit]
    See also: Ternatean–Portuguese conflicts, Malay–Portuguese conflicts, and Acehnese–Portuguese conflicts
    Portuguese East Indies
    Spanish East Indies

    The most complex theater of the war was the one involving the East Indies, as it was the one with the most profitable benefits due to the Spice islands and Chinese trade. After the 1606 conquest of the Moluccas and occupation of Fort Kastela, the Spaniards became key players in the East Indies (zone of interest by the Dutch and Portuguese) and during the Twelve Years' Truce reinforced their position in 1609 by building Fort Tahula and Fort Manado for active confrontation against the Dutch, something which happened during the rule of Juan de Silva in Spanish Philippines on 1611,[115] as the Dutch occupied Fort Oranje and Fort Tolukko (renaming it Fort Hollandia) to fight against Spain, allied to the Sultanate of Tidore (who let Spain to do a settlement called Ciudad del Rosario,[116] in return preserved their traditional leaders and ethnic Mardica identity).[117] However, this theater of war officially started when the VOC conquered Jakarta in 1619 against the Sultanate of Mataram, making it their base in the east and forming the Dutch East Indies. Through Batavia (Dutch East Indies), the Dutch launched big offensives against the Portuguese India at Malacca, even stablishing new colonies like Dutch Formosa that menaced Portuguese Macau and the Spanish Captaincy General of the Philippines at Manila, which received help from New Spain and Peru in terms of economic resources and Indian auxiliary forces,[118] as also was very important the recruitment of Indigenous peoples of Philippines and of Indonesia in the Spanish army (being prominent the Pampangos, Cagayanos, Tidores) as also Japanese (mainly Kirishitans) and Chinese Filipinos volunteers.[119] Also the Dutch made alliances with local Austronesians like Johor, Aceh, Ternate and Moro peoples.[120][121] Minor allies were the Ottomans and Safavids by sending economic support to the VOC-Muslim allies.[122]

    Aside of Brazil, the East Indies theater (specially during the rules of Miguel de Noronha at Goa and Juan Niño de Tabora at Manila) was the only front of the War in which Spaniards and Portuguese had a degree of military cooperation at the South Seas from Malacca strait to Philippine Sea, instead of having purely separate strategies against the Protestant Anti-Habsburg forces in the zone (mainly Dutch, English, French and Danish-Norwegian, whose ironically were more united than the Iberians). The Portuguese Goa authorities cooperated reluctantly and constantly hesitated to obey Council of Portugal requisites (trying to reinforce their supremacy over the Royal court in the Eastern affairs) while the Portuguese Macau tried to integrate more with the Spanish East Indies (as the China–Spain route through Manila galleon was more secure and profitable than the insecure and decadent China–Portugal route through Portuguese India Armadas).[29][87]

    On the Portuguese side

    [edit]
    Main articles: Battle of Jambi and Siege of Malacca (1641)

    There were 2 main fronts, on the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula:

    On the Spanish side

    [edit]
    Main articles: Battle of San Salvador (1641), Battle of San Salvador (1642), Battles of La Naval de Manila, Battle of Puerto de Cavite, and Spanish occupation of Jolo (1638)

    There were 3 main fronts, on Taiwan, Philippines and northern Indonesia:[130]

    Spanish East Indies in the Maluku Islands.
    Spanish and Dutch Formosa zones.

    China

    [edit]
    See also: Battle of Macau, Sino-Dutch conflicts, and History of China–Portugal relations

    Since early 1600s, Dutch and English forces reached Ming China trying to stablish China–Netherlands and China–England economical relationships (although failed due to Portuguese protests and the Dutch alliance with Wokou pirates that caused Sino-Dutch conflicts), and by 1623 to 1636 the Portuguese lost 500 navies at colonial Macau due to their raids and aggressions, which included a blockade of Macau and Manila by an Anglo-Dutch navy commanded by Willem Janszoon.[150] These Anglo-Dutch attacks caused an increasement of collaboration between Portuguese Macau and the Captaincy General of the Philippines, integrating Macau to the Manila galleon route and occasionally receiving Castilian auxiliary forces and supplies (although being cautious, because Spaniards were potential competitors for being pro-Fujianese traders and wanting to have their own factory in mainland China).[117] One of the most important raids was the 1622 Battle of Macau, in which the VOC tried to conquer Macau to force China to open its market to them (and ruin the Iberian economical circuit between Manila, Malacca and Goa), but the Spanish-Portuguese forces succeeded.[151]

    Portuguese presence in East Asia.

    Simultaneously at the South China Sea started a series of Sino-Dutch conflicts, which were a consequence of Dutch attempts to force Ming China to close his commerce with Portuguese Macau and Spanish Philippines, demanding to open Free trade with the Dutch and the rest of Europe. This led to an informal alliance between Mings and Iberians (who wanted to maintain their economical privileges), while the angered Dutch allied with Asian pirates. Some important Sino-Dutch skirmishes were the Battle of Liaoluo Bay. An indirect consequence of this struggles were that the Imperial Chinese authorities give permission for Portuguese Macau to fortify itself and improve its walls (something banned in the XVI Century to avoid possible Iberian conquest of China) to defend Southern China from Wokou pirates backed by the Dutch.[117]

    Despite Macau triumphed in securing its military defense through the war despite being one of the weakest Portuguese colony in the region, such was a Pyrrhic victory as Macau ended in economical ruin around the 1640s due to the ruin of Goa-Macau Indian trade, the Macau-New Spain trade (because Portuguese Independence) and the Macau-Japan trade (because Sakoku isolationism) caused by the consequences of Dutch expansionism and Spanish crisis at the Thirty Years' War.[117] Also Macau situation worsened by the contemporary Ming-Qing Conflict (in which Macau supported their Ming allies against the Manchu Qing invasion, involving in the 1640 Siege of Galle).[152] All of this concluded in the 1640-42 Macau political crisis due to the doubts in colonial authorities to recognise John IV of Braganza (maintaining their privileges and autonomy at the cost of using the more dangerous Cape Route) or maintain allegiance to Philip IV of Habsburg Spain (maintaining the more secure Philippines-Mexico-Spain route at the cost of being more dependent of the Hispanic Monarchy); a Macau proposal of 1642 in which a Castilian-Filipino Presidio should be stablished in their city (to defend them from Anglo-Dutch and Sino-Japanese pirates) and free Mobilization for Macau people to Manila was briefly considered as a compromise to maintain the Spanish Habsburg Suzerainty, but the Cortes in Madrid rejected it due to the previous confiscation of property against Spaniards that did Macau authorities. After that, Macau joined the Anti-Habsburg coalition and the Anglo-Dutch navies began to supply them and act as intermediaries, although in 1644 and 1646 some Spanish Filipinos instigated an Austracist revolts to re-annex Macau to Spain, but failed and the Portuguese punishment was the total expulsion of Spaniards merchants and missionaries from Portuguese India.[29]

    Proxy conflicts

    [edit]
    See also: Trịnh–Nguyễn War, Sino-Dutch conflicts, Cambodian–Dutch War, and Dano-Mughal War

    There were another conflicts in which there was an indirect participation of a European Power backing a Local Power (without sending their colonial forces) against another European Power which was in opposing sides at the time of the Thirty Years' War:

    Results

    [edit]
    See also: Dutch Golden Age, Decline of Spain, First French colonial empire, and Decline of Portugal in the East

    For the Anti-Habsburg Protestant Coallition

    [edit]

    For the Pro-Habsburg Iberian Alliance

    [edit]
    Iberian Union colonial empire in the Far East at the end of Thirty Years' War

    For the Indigenous and colonial populations

    [edit]

    Effects on European conflict and Propaganda

    [edit]
    See also: Portuguese Restoration War and Black Legend

    For contemporary European news media and chronicles (mainly in Germany), the global nature of the Thirty Years' War was a very prominent idea, as seventeenth-century observers frequently placed the military and political events of this conflict in a Transatlantic and even Global frame, reporting events from Ibero-America, South-West Africa and the East Indies alongside the campaigns in Central Europe. Periodical newspapers, newsletters and manuscript chronicles (like the ones of Volkmar Happe, Otto von Estorf, Christian II of Anhalt-Bernburg)[184] linked transoceanic events—such as the Dutch invasions of Brazil and Chile, Revolts in Mexico, Portuguese-Kongo Wars, the arrival of the Spanish treasure fleet with Peruvian silver in Seville—to European military and fiscal crises, treating them as causally relevant to the fate of armies and states involucrated in the HRE's great war, seeing them as events that could alter the balance of power in Europe by weakening or strengthening metropolitan partners (specially the Superpower that represented Habsburg Spain for the general population) and so, perceiving distant events into a single narrative of universal crisis as transoceanic economic flows and colonial warfare had observable impacts on European military capacity and diplomacy (leading to the Dutch Golden Age and Decline of Iberian Union).[185]

    Piet Hein capturing the Spanish silver fleet at the Battle in the Bay of Matanzas, which had serious consequences for the Thirty Years' War

    This printed and manuscript news culture created a discourse of simultaneity and connectedness that integrated the disturbances in colonial possessions into the temporal narrative of the conflict and helped contemporaries perceive the fighting as part of a wider, interlinked contest rather than as an exclusively Local conflict or purely European war (general population saw the destiny of the German civilisation and the Christendom as something decided not only by their domestic affairs, but by battles around the world), recounting the European events that "led to the bloody Bohemian War which dragged on continuously for many years, creeping across virtually the entire world and devastating all the lands" with several Oversea theatres (traditionally treated as non-related or merely peripheral) that had structural effects on the European conflict. For example, the importance of the Battle of Matanzas Bay, in which a Spanish treasure fleet was captured by the Dutch in Cuba, having immediate implications for troop pay, mercenary financing and the diplomatic leverage of the Imperial Side in benefit of the Protestant Coallition (being used the gains to finance the Siege of 's-Hertogenbosch).[185]

    See also

    [edit]

    References

    [edit]
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