Media consumption

Nicoline Tuxen - Portrait of a woman reading in bed

Media consumption or media diet is the sum of information and entertainment media taken in by an individual or group. Media consumption refers to how people access, use and interact with different types of media in their day-to-day lives, including both traditional and digital platforms. It includes activities such as interacting with new media, reading books and magazines, watching television and film, and listening to radio. While media consumption can be categorized as passive, research shows that audiences actively engage with content based on their own experiences and interests. (Valkenburg et al., 2016).

History

For as long as there have been words and pictures, the people of the world have been consuming media. Improved technology such as the printing press has fed increased consumption. Around 1600 the camera obscura was perfected. Light was inverted through a small hole or lens from outside and projected onto a surface or screen, creating a moving image. This new medium had a very small effect on society compared to the old ones. The development of photography in the middle 19th century made those images permanent, greatly reducing the cost of pictures. By the end of the century millions of consumers were seeing new, professionally made photographs every day.

In the 1860s mechanisms such as the zoetrope, mutoscope and praxinoscope that produced two-dimensional drawings in motion were created. They were displayed in public halls for people to observe. These new media foreshadowed the mass media consumption of later years.

Around the 1880s, the development of the motion picture camera allowed individual component images to be captured and stored on a single reel. Motion pictures were projected onto a screen to be viewed by an audience. This moving camera affected the progression of the world immensely, beginning the American film industry as well as early international movements such as German Expressionism, Surrealism and the Soviet Montage. For the first time people could tell stories on film, and distribute their works to consumers worldwide.

In the 1920s electronic television was working in laboratories, and in the 1930s hundreds of receivers were in use worldwide. By 1941 the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) was broadcasting two 15-minute newscasts a day to a tiny audience on its New York television station. However, the television industry did not begin to boom until the general post–World War II economic expansion. Eventually television began to incorporate color, and multiple broadcasting networks were created.

Computers were developed in the middle 20th century, and commercialized in the 1960s. Apple and other companies sold computers for hobbyists in the 1970s, and in 1981 IBM released computers intended for consumers.

On August 6, 1991, the internet and World Wide Web, long in use by computer specialists, became available to the public. This was the start of the commercialized Internet that people use today.

In 1999, Friends Reunited, the first social media site, was released to the public. Since then, Myspace, Facebook, Twitter and other social networks have been created. Facebook and Twitter are the top social media sites in terms of usage. Facebook has a total of 1,230,000,000 consumers while Twitter has 645,750,000. Both companies are worth billions of dollars, and continue to grow.

Overall media consumption has immensely increased over time, from the era of the introduction of motion pictures, to the age of social networks and the internet.

Trends in media consumption

Media consumption has grown significantly with the development of digital technologies.

Statista (2024), reports people spend multiple hours per day consuming media across different platforms. Mobile devices, specifically smartphones, have added to this by allowing constant access.

According to Pew Research (2025), social media has become a major source of news and entertainment, specifically with the younger audiences.

Another trend is that consumers frequently shift between multiple platforms rather than sticking to just one.

Effects of media consumption

Media consumption has been shown to influence attitudes, behaviors and perceptions through its effects depending on context and differences (Valkenburg et al., 2016).

Positive Effects

There are a number of positive effects of media consumption. Television can have positive effects on children as they are growing up. Shows like Sesame Street teach valuable lessons to children in developmental stages, such as math, the alphabet, kindness, racial equality, and cooperation. Dora the Explorer introduces foreign language to children of all backgrounds in a fun, cooperative environment.

Mass media has a huge grasp on today's adolescents. Many young people use different types of social media daily. Mass media and digital platforms can also ease communication and social connection. Social media specifically allows people to interact with others across the world and learn an understanding of social norms and cultural differences.

Media relating to advertising can also have a positive effect. Some alcohol manufacturers are known to spend at least ten percent of their budget on warnings about the dangers of drinking and driving.

Many video games can also have positive effects. Games like Wii Tennis and Wii Fit improve hand-eye coordination as well as general mental and physical health.

Video games, including shooting games, may positively impact a child's learning, as well as physical and mental health and social skills.

The internet itself is an overwhelmingly useful resource for people of all ages, effectively serving as a personal library for any who access it. The sheer volume of educational websites, information and services offered are so immense that research has become a far easier task than it was in any previous period in human history. Adding to this, the media has added to a surplus of access to educational resources. The internet provides a large range of information and tools that support learning and research. This makes information more accessible than in previous times. Social media has provided invaluable benefits for people over the course of its lifetime, and has served as an incredibly effective method of interacting and communicating with others in nearly every part of the world.

Media consumption has proven to serve as an indispensable asset in the educational field, serving both instructors and students alike. Media literacy is prominent amongst the youth who have essentially been born into an era where media is a global driving force. Students who consume media are capable of questioning the validity of the media they are exposed to, in turn developing their own sense of critical thinking. To broaden their comprehension skills, students often find it useful to question an author's purpose, the reasoning for the placement of specific images or motifs, the representation of content and its meaning to individuals, and the effects of the media on individual and societal thinking. Media related to learning is typically considered a source as well as a tool. Since its start, many have successfully used Rosetta Stone (software) to assist in the process of learning a new language. Rosetta Stone is a source compatible with several platforms i.e. (iPad, Tablet, Phone Apps Websites).

Negative Effects

Research identifies multiple potential negative effects that coexist with high levels of media consumption. There are many instances of violence in movies, television, video games and websites which can affect one's level of aggression. These violent depictions can desensitize viewers to acts of violence and can also provoke mimicking of the acts. Since violence is so rampant in media, viewers believe they live in a more violent world than they actually do.

The reach of media is expanding globally and with this television has become a vice around the world. Television addiction has been labeled as the "plug-in drug" since 1977. Over the years televisions are now located in almost every home, according to most recent estimates taken by Nielsen in the U.S. alone there are 116.4 million TV homes.

In an article about media violence on society it states that extensive TV viewing among adolescents and young adults is associated with subsequent aggressive acts. Excessive media use has coexisted with negative health and behavior outcomes, like reduced physical activity, shorter attention span and disrupted sleeping patterns.

When adolescents watch television for long periods of time they spend less time being active and engaged in physical activity. Many adolescents who spend large amounts of time watching television see actors as role models and try to emulate them by trying to be like them this can also have a negative impact on people's body images, mostly women.

After seeing beautiful and thinner than average women in the media, viewers may feel worse about themselves and sometimes develop eating disorders. Some believe that the reason obesity rates have greatly increased in the last 20 years is due to increased media consumption. This is due to the fact that children are spending much more time playing video games and watching television than exercising.

Social media use has also been linked to mental health issues, especially amongst young adults, like increased anxiety, distress and overall low well-being.

Numerous studies have also shown that media consumption has a significant association with poor sleep quality. Television and computer game exposure affect children's sleep and deteriorate verbal cognitive performance.

Another problem that has developed due to increased media consumption is that people are becoming less independent. With text messaging and social media, people want instant gratification from their friends and often feel hurt if they do not receive an immediate response. Instead of having self-validation, people often need validation from others. Adding to this, constant access to phones and social media can heavily contribute to people replying on immediate responses and validation, this reduces independence.

Minorities are often put in a negative light in the media as well, with blacks being portrayed as criminals, Hispanics portrayed as illegal aliens, and people from the Middle East portrayed as terrorists.

Effects on self-esteem

Media has played a huge role in society for years in selling people on the expectations of how an ideal male and female body should look.

Media representations of ideal body types have been connected to lower self esteem and body dissatisfaction in men and women (Valkenburg et al., 2016). These images can play significant role in eating disorders in men and women as well. The idea of body comparison goes back to Festinger's (1954) social comparison theory. Festinger argues that individuals make body comparisons in areas for which they relate. This relationship is shown through social comparison theory, suggesting people evaluate themselves by comparing them to others.

The more a person engages in body comparison, the more likely they may struggle with low self-esteem and a negative body image. Reading magazines with images of toned muscular men has been reported to lower body and self-esteem in men and they start worrying more about their own health and physical fitness.

Social media and engagement

Social media plays a huge role in modern media consumption. Platforms like YouTube, Instagram and TikTok are used for communication, entertainment and sharing.

Pew Research Center (2025), a majority of adults use at least one social media platform regularly with YouTube being the most used. These platforms encourage engagement through likes, comments, shares and reposts.

A major shift that comes along with social media is the increase of user-generated content. Consumers are no longer watching professional produced media, they will also create and distribute their own content. This then helped with the influx of influencers and online communities.

While this is happening, the spread of content on social media has then raised concerns about misinformation and if the source is credible. Information can spread rapidly without verification, users then become skeptical.

How Media Shaped Meaning for American Youth

American youth have personal television sets, laptops, iPods and cell phones all at their disposal. They spend more time with media than any single activity other than sleeping. As access to media has grown, media use has become integrated into everyday routines and continues to grow digitally. Media exposure begins early, typically increases until children begin school, then climbs to a peak of almost 8 hours daily among 11 and 12-year-old children. Media exposure is positively related to risk-taking behaviors and is negatively related to personal adjustment and school performance.

Media consumption, particularly social media consumption, plays a major role in the socialization and social behaviors of adolescents. Young adults are beginning to form an understanding of identity, behavior and social expectation from the exposure of images and symbols.

Adolescents have the ability to choose media that best suits their personalities and preferences, which in turn create youth that have a skewed view of the world and limited social interaction skills.

Social semiotics represent a significant role in how adolescents learn and employ social interaction. Impressionable adolescents regularly imitate the sign systems seen in the media. These semiotic systems affect their behavior through connotations, narratives, and myths. Adolescents are shaped by the sign systems in the media they consume. Pew Research Center showed that a majority of young adults use platforms like YouTube, Instagram and TikTok regularly. Visual content spreads rapidly and strengthens certain behaviors and ideas.

With more exposure to the media and images of models, young women are more likely to conform to the ideals of specific body images. Anorexia, bulimia and models smoking convey to girls that a feminine person is thin, beautiful, and must do certain things to her body to be attractive. A code of femininity (see media and gender) implies today that a "true" woman is thin, girlish, frail, passive, and focused on serving others. On the other hand, the code of masculinity for a young males raised within the past several decades may include the ideals of profusely individualistic and self-sufficient natures, oft personified in film characters such as cowboys and outlaw bikers. The images, myths, and narratives of these ideas imply that a "true" man is a relentless problem solver, physically strong, emotionally inexpressive, and at times, a daredevil with little regard for societal expectations and the law of the land.

The idea of being judged on femininity or clothing relates to experiences later in life, including job interviews and the emphasis placed on reaching financial success.

Media consumption has become an integral part of modern culture, and has shaped younger generations through socialization and the interpretations provided for the signs and world around them.

Social and cultural effects

Media consumption plays a huge role in the cultivation of young adults, as people develop patterns based on the content they consume. This shapes their understanding of social norms and influences behavior.

Media also influences behavior through symbols, narratives and representations, often studied through semiotics. This shapes how people interpret identity, gender roles and cultural expectations.

Effect on public attitudes regarding crime and justice

Law & Order: SVU Television viewers of crime-based shows are more fearful of crime.

Media consumption affects the public's perception of the justice system through the relationship of fear regarding crime, the perceived effectiveness of law enforcement, and the general attitudes about punishment for crime. Media consumption can influence how people perceive crime, shaping beliefs about safety and risk. The justice system has been consistently portrayed in mass media in negative tandem through the portrayal of criminals, deviants, and law enforcement officials, in turn affecting their overall perception by the public.

A 2003 study by Dowler showed the effects of media consumption influences public attitudes regarding crime and justice. Research shows that people who frequently consume crime- related media may look at the world as more dangerous than it actually is. George Gerbner's empirical studies of the impact of media consumption discovered that television viewers of crime-based shows are more fearful of crime than those who are not consuming that type of media.

A study conducted by Chermak, McGarrell, & Gruenewald focused on media coverage of police misconduct, producing results where greater consumption of media portraying dishonesty amongst law enforcement led to increasing confirmation bias in the direction of the officer's guilt.

Overall, the media's idea of crime and law enforcement can shape public attitudes toward justice and punishment.

References

Pew Research Center. (2025). Social Media and News Fact Sheet.

https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/fact-sheet/social-media-and-news-fact-sheet/

Pew Research Center. (2025). Americans' Social Media Use.

https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/social-media/

Kümpel, A. S., Karnowski, V., & Keyling, T. (2015). News sharing in social media. Social Media + Society.

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2056305115610141

Statista. (2024). Daily time spent with media worldwide.

https://www.statista.com/statistics/433871/daily-media-usage-worldwide/

Valkenburg, P. M., Peter, J., & Walther, J. B. (2016). Media effects: Theory and research. Annual Review of Psychology.

https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033608

Further reading

1990s

• Shaun Moores (1993). Interpreting audiences: the ethnography of media consumption. London: Sage.
• Wei-Na Lee; David K. Tse (1994). "Changing Media Consumption in a New Home: Acculturation Patterns among Hong Kong Immigrants to Canada". Journal of Advertising. 23 (1): 57–70. doi:10.1080/00913367.1994.10673431.

2000s

• Bohdan Jung (2001). "Media Consumption and Leisure in Poland in the 1990s: Some Quantitative Aspects of Consumer Behaviour". International Journal on Media Management. 3.
• B. Osgerby (2004). Youth Media. New York: Routledge.
• Michael J. Dotson; Eva M. Hyatt (2005). "Major influence factors in children's consumer socialization". Journal of Consumer Marketing. 22: 35–42. doi:10.1108/07363760510576536.
• B. Palser (2005). "Controlling Your Media Diet". American Journalism Review. 27 (1).
• Nick Couldry; Ana Ines Langer (2005). "Media Consumption and Public Connection: Toward a Typology of the Dispersed Citizen". Communication Review. 8.
• Teresa Orange; Louise O'Flynn (2005). The media diet for kids: a parents' survival guide to TV & computer games. London: Hay House.
• Wenyu Dou; Guangping Wang; Nan Zhou (Summer 2006). "Generational and Regional Differences in Media Consumption Patterns of Chinese Generation X Consumers". Journal of Advertising. 35 (2): 101–110. doi:10.1080/00913367.2006.10639230. S2CID 144975216.
• J. Sefton-Green (2006). Review of Research in Education. American Educational Research Association.
• Nick Couldry, Sonia Livingstone & Tim Markham (2007). Media Consumption and Public Engagement: Beyond the Presumption of Attention. England: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-8534-7.
• J. Fornas; et al. (2007). Consuming Media: Communication, Shopping. NY: Berg. ISBN 978-1-84520-760-1.
• Sonia Livingstone; Tim Markham (2008). "The contribution of media consumption to civic participation". British Journal of Sociology. 59 (2).
• Youna Kim (2008). Media consumption and everyday life in Asia. NY: Routledge.
• E. Peterson (2009). "Media consumption and girls who want to have fun". Critical Studies in Mass Communication. 4: 37–50. doi:10.1080/15295038709360111.
• Steven Leckart (2009). "Balance Your Media Diet". Wired. Vol. 17, no. 8.
• Ke Guo; Ying Wu (2009). "Media Consumption and Global Visions Among Urban Chinese Youth". China Media Research. 5 (4).
• Scott Althaus; Anne Cizmar; James Gimpel (2009). "Media Supply, Audience Demand, and the Geography of News Consumption in the United States". Political Communication. 26.
• Sharam Alghasi (2009). "Iranian-Norwegian Media Consumption: Identity and Positioning". Nordicom Review. 30.

2010s

• Robert LaRose (2010). "The Problem of Media Habits". Communication Theory. 10.
• Lauren Kirchner (October 13, 2010). "Instapaper's Fix for Your Unhealthy Media Diet". The Kicker, The News Frontier. Columbia Journalism Review.
• Richard Wray (18 April 2010). "Media consumption on the increase: Survey finds increase in number of hours public spends watching TV, playing video games and using the internet". The Guardian.
• Lee Rainie (Jun 24, 2010). "How Media Consumption Has Changed Since 2000". Washington, DC: Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on February 10, 2014. Retrieved April 7, 2012.
• J.V. Den Bergh; M Behrer (2011). How Cool Brands Stay Hot: Branding to Generation Y. Philadelphia: Kogan Page Limited.
• Matt Carmichael (January 24, 2011). "Study Brings New Meaning to the Words 'Media Diet': Ad Age/IPSOS Survey Finds We'd Rather Give Up Food Than Cable, Cellphone". Ad Age.
• Clay Johnson (2012), The Information Diet: a Case for Conscious Consumption, Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly Media, ISBN 978-1-4493-0468-3, OCLC 754720170, OL 25228802M, 1449304680
• Jan Zverina (November 6, 2013). "U.S. Media Consumption to Rise to 15.5 Hours a Day – Per Person – by 2015". UC SAN Diego News Center. San Diego, CA.
• Allyson Velarde (November 7, 2013). "Marshall report explores media consumption". Daily Trojan. Los Angeles, CA.

Media diets of notable people

• "What I Read (series)". Atlantic Wire. Washington, D.C.: Atlantic Monthly Group. 2010. Archived from the original on 2012-06-13.. (Notables include Barney Frank, Aaron Sorkin, David Brooks, Clay Shirky, Peggy Noonan)
• "Steven Soderbergh's Daily Diet". Studio 360. NY: Public Radio International. April 11, 2011. Archived from the original on April 14, 2011.
• "David Carr: A Media Omnivore Discusses His Diet". Fresh Air. National Public Radio (USA). October 27, 2011.
• "Legacy Libraries". USA: LibraryThing.. (Lists of titles in "personal libraries of famous readers" such as Harry Houdini, Ralph Ellison, Susan B. Anthony)
• Jann S. Wenner (May 10, 2012). "Ready for the Fight: Rolling Stone Interview with Barack Obama: The president, in the Oval Office, discusses his job, the opposition and the coming campaign". Rolling Stone. New York, NY.
• "Obama Releases Music Playlists on Spotify", New York Times, Associated Press, August 13, 2015

External links

• J. Nathan Matias (7 Nov 2011). "Visualising Your Media Diet".
• Clay Johnson; Sean B. Cash; Ethan Zuckerman (2012). "Civic Media Session: "What's Your Information Diet?" (video)". MIT. Archived from the original on 2012-06-14.